West European Studies

Introduction
One of the deadliest pandemics in human history, the Black Death in the Middle Ages (1348-1350) affected almost every nation in Europe and the death toll eradicated approximately thirty to sixty percent of Europes population at the time. Significantly, the Black Death is often regarded as a suitable separator between the central Middle Age and the late Middle Age. The Black Death, which is projected to have killed thirty to sixty percent of Europes population, has had significant effects on the course of European history, especially in the religious, social, and economic realms. As William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel maintain, the Black Death of the mid-fourteenth century was the most devastating natural disaster in European history, ravaging Europes population and causing economic, social, political, and cultural upheaval. It is very important to analyze how the various nations of the Europe responded to the emergency situation created by the Black Death, because it was a situation greatly relevant to the crisis management of these nations at the time. This paper focuses on the response of the British to the plague in relation to the crisis management at the time and its aftermath. Significantly, the lessons learned from the Black Death influenced the citizens of the period up until the 18th century and this paper discusses the historical significance of this event in the context of social, economic and political forces of the period in the United Kingdom.

The Black Death in the Middle Ages in the United Kingdom
As aforementioned, the Black Death has been one of the deadliest pandemics which affected the course of European history in the Middle Ages (1348-1350) and it had enormous influence in the history of the United Kingdom during the Middle Ages. In reflective analysis of the history of the United Kingdom during the Middle Ages, it becomes lucid that the Black Death was a filthy disease which has been regarded as a national trauma that entirely transformed Britain. According to Dr Mike Ibeji, The first outbreak of plague swept across England in 1348-49. It seems to have travelled across the south in bubonic form during the summer months of 1348, before mutating into the even more frightening pneumonic form with the onset of winter. It hit London in September 1348, and spread into East Anglia all along the coast early during the New Year. By spring 1349, it was ravaging Wales and the Midlands, and by late summer, it had made the leap across the Irish Sea and had penetrated the north.  Therefore, the impact of the Black Death on the social, economic and political history of the United Kingdom in the Middle Ages is indubitable and it is generally agreed by the scholars that the Black Death killed an estimated total of 4 million people in Medieval England. The lack of medical knowledge to deal with this serious disease in the Medieval England also contributed to the enormity of the disaster.  Thus, the Black Death in the United Kingdom during the Middle Ages offered one of the serious challenges to the crisis management at the time.

In a reflective exploration of the history of the United Kingdom in the Middle Ages, it becomes obvious that it has been one of the most stimulating periods in English History and it witnessed the Black Death, which is one of the most significant historical events in the Medieval Europe. It is important to recognize that the Black Death entered England in 1348 and killed almost one-third of the nations inhabitants. Significantly, the Black Death, which arrived on the British Isles from one of its provinces, influenced every aspect of life in the Middle Ages and offered great challenge to the crisis management at the time. The consequences of the Black Death on England are several and it affected every aspect of social life in the period. It is impossible to overstate the terrible effects of the Black Death on England. With the population so low, there were not enough workers to work the land. As a result, wages and prices rose. The Ordinances of Labourers (1349) tried to legislate a return to pre-plague wage levels, but the overwhelming shortage of labourers meant that wages continued to rise The standard of living for laborers rose accordingly. The nature of the economy changed to meet the changing social conditions. Land that had once been farmed was now given over to pasturing, which was much less labor-intensive. Therefore, the impact of the Black Death on the religious, social and economic spheres of England during the Middle Ages is unquestionable.

When the Black Death struck the United Kingdom, which was a prosperous and internationally growing nation at the time, it offered enormous challenges to the crisis management of the time. Significantly, the bubonic plague, which came to England in 1347, remained as a frightening presence in the everyday life of the country during the period. A clear understanding of the Middle Ages suggests that the Black Death and subsequent population losses were central events in the period which influenced every group of people during the period. The far reaching effects of the Black Death in England touched every aspect of social life in the era. As the Black Death and the following plague outbreaks swept through England, the scarcity of rural labor exacerbated tension between landlords and the peasants. Rural labor had been an abundant resource for so long that many landlords had become accustomed to relying on market forces as much as extra-economic compulsion to secure profits from their estates. Thus, the scholars are categorical about the impact of the Black Death and the following plague on the various aspects of life in England during the Middle Ages. However, a careful analysis of the strategies adopted by the government authorities confirms that the English government was effective in handling the crisis, although the loss of life was immense.

It is most essential to comprehend that the Black Death in the Middle Ages was an enormous force in the social, economic and political realms of life in the region and the lessons learned from the Black Death influenced the citizens of the period up until the 18th century. Thus, it is essential to analyze the impact of this great event in the context of social, economic and political forces of the period in the United Kingdom. Significantly, life in Britain in the fourteenth century is often considered to be nasty, brutish and short, and the peasantry realized life on these terms since long before the Black Death. According to Mike Ibeji, Britain in the early fourteenth century was horrendously overpopulated. This was very good for the land-owning classes, since it meant that they had a vast reserve of inexpensive manpower upon which they could draw. In fact, there was such a surplus on manpower that most landlords found it convenient to relax the old feudal labour dues owed to them on the grounds that men could always be found to perform them. This changed after 1348. Therefore, it is important to realize that the Black Death resulted in the social transformation of the country during the Middle Ages and Mike Ibeji offers several examples of the social, economic and political changes in the country following the Black Death.

In a profound analysis of the social and political upheavals in the period of the Black Death in the United Kingdom, the historical relevance of this great event in the fourteenth century becomes obvious. As an immediate consequence of the plague, there was a significant slash in the cost of livestock, followed by a cut in the inflation in the cost of labor. Following this, there was an important legislation by the elites of the country, namely the Ordinance of Laborers on 18th June 1349. As Mike Ibeji suggests, this ordinance limited the freedom of peasants to move around in search of the most profitable work and it was promulgated through Parliament as the Statute of Laborers in 1351. There were several important attempts at the social and religious reformation in the era and the works of John Wycliffe, who was promoted into the government service of King Edward III, should be related to these events. John of Gaunt, the chief advisor of King Edward III, sought the service of Wycliffes radical preaching to pressurize the clergy into paying higher taxes to the state. The works of Wycliffe had an important effect on the populace and there were all the preconditions of a great revolt in the United Kingdom which naturally resulted in the Yeomens Revolt in 1381. This was the outcome of simmering resentments and the surprising social shifts, in part caused in part by the Black Death. The Peasants Revolt is the only truly popular uprising in English medieval history. For, even the most fundamental attempts at social change, like the rebellion of Simon de Montfort in 1265, had previously been initiated and led by the English barony. The Peasants Revolt was the first ever mass uprising of the common man in England. However, it was not led by the peasantry either. The Peasants Revolt was, in fact, a revolt of the yeoman gentry. Therefore, the social changes in England following the Black Death resulted in various subsequent upheavals in the socio-political spheres of the country during the period.

It is fundamental to comprehend that the Black Death in the Middle Ages had an enormous impact on the social, economic and political forces of the period in the United Kingdom. Significantly, there was important shift in the concentration of power and the position of the general public on socio-political issues was heard through the various upheavals during the period. One of the most important demands made by the general public during the period following the Black Death has been no taxation without power. It was the power of the Parliament to levy taxation on the people and there was great need for money for the state due to the fact that the cost of wars increased during the Middle Ages. By the year 1376, there were great changes in the system of collecting taxes and the common people were always kept under control by the rich. The nature of the revolts against the social evils of the period is very well illustrated by the Peasants Revolt. According to Mike Ibeji, the yeomen and lesser gentry were forced to lead the revolt when they recognized that they were excluded from the administrative process and were hit with a graduated tax bill. Yet the Peasants Revolt failed. In the end, it was just a flash in the pan a brief conflagration which threw stark light on the shifting social attitudes of the general populace in the years following the Black Death. These changes had been occurring throughout the fourteenth century The Black Death was never a cause, it was always a catalyst. All the things we have been talking about - labour problems, architectural change, the rise of the gentry and the growth of the English language - all had been developing throughout the century. What the Black Death did was throw them together into an unstable brew to which the king and his wars added the last spark of resentment.  Thus, it is essential to comprehend that the Black Death was an important point in the socio-political and economic history of England in the Middle Ages.

It is often maintained by the scholars in the area that the consequences and effects of the Black Death plague have been far reaching. Thus, it is important to realize that prices and wages began to rise considerably, as a result of the economic influence of the Black Death. Similarly, there was greater value for labor in the period following the Black Death and the farming land was given over to pasturing. Therefore, the Black Death in England in the Middle Ages had enormous impact on various aspect of life in the period, which also indicates the historical relevance of the incident. Most importantly, the social, economic and political consequences of the Black Death in England are closely connected. The nature of the economy changed to meet the changing social conditions. Land that had once been farmed was now given over to pasturing, which was much less labour-intensive. This helped boost the cloth and woolen industry. With the fall in population most landowners were not getting the rental income they needed, and were forced to lease their land. Peasants benefited through increased employment options and higher wages. Society became more mobile, as peasants moved to accept work where they could command a good wage. (The Black Death in England 1348-1350). Similarly, the Black Death in England also had a crucial impact on the religious life of the period and it is estimated that 40 of Englands priests died in the epidemic, which left the Church in a fatally discomfited position. All these developments resulted in the decline in church power and influence which ultimately culminated in the English Reformation. In short, the Black Death in England has been a pertinent event in the history of England in the Middle Ages which influenced the religious, social, economic, and political forces of the period in the United Kingdom.

The effects of the Black Death and its recurrences during the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were most visible on the English society, similar to the other medieval Western societies. Significantly, the most apparent effect of the plague in the Middle Age in England was that the population in the nation dropped suddenly and tremendously. The consequences of this tremendous decline in the population of the country reflected on the family setting as well as the economic and social patterns of the United Kingdom. According to several scholars, English feudalism saw its last days in the period after the Black Death due mainly to the landlords desperate need for willing laborers. As a direct impact of the Black Death on the economic sphere of the country, some poor became rich, and the rich got richer as wealth was redistributed through inheritance and new economic opportunities. Government had to adjust their methods of gathering revenue, while intervening in sometimes revolutionary ways to retain the traditional balance between the haves and the have-nots Not only were there greatly increased demand and new opportunities for farmers, craftsmen, and priests, but also for educated lawyers, notaries, physicians, and teachers.  Therefore, it is fundamental to realize that the effects of the Black Death were most evident on the socio-economic aspects of life in England during the Middle Ages. It is also important to relate here that the Black Death was not a single incident affecting the social, economic and political spheres of English life, because there were several incidents of its recurrence during the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Thus, the plague returned across England almost fifteen times after 1370 in 1379-83, 1389-93, 1400, 1405-7, 1413, 1420, 1427, 1433-34, 1438-9, 1457-8, 1463-4, 1467, 1471, 1479-80, and 1485. Death tolls were far lower than in 1348-49, perhaps generally in the range of 8 to 15 percent, but the cumulative effect was to keep Englands population low or even declining until sometime during the second half of the fifteenth century, when the country began to experience a sustained period of growth under the Tudors.

Conclusion
The Black Death in the Middle Ages (1348-1350), a pandemic that erupted throughout Europe, has been one of the most important events in the history of the United Kingdom which should be comprehended in the context of social, economic and political forces of the period. The consequences of the great pandemic in England during the Middle Ages are closely connected to the social, economic and political developments in the period. A reflective analysis of the crisis management at the time and its consequences confirms that the government was successful in controlling the crisis, although the loss of life in the United Kingdom was huge. In spite of the effective measures to deal with the crisis following the Black Death, its impact on the social, economic and political spheres of life in England remains a reality.