West European Studies

Is class natural
Discrepancy in the social status of people and families has been a dominant characteristic of the society throughout the history of the human species. Before and during the advent of the industrial age in the 18th century, the society in Western Europe was stratified into noblemen, merchants, peasants and the snobs (Conley,  Lareau 2008, pp 61). In other words, there were the rich and the poor and the gap between them was enormous. The socio-economic and political revolutions that characterized the times led to a significant bridging of the rich and the poor particularly the clamour for equality, political participation and land ownership rights empowered many people to climb up the social ladder (Conley,  Lareau 2008, pp 64). But today, social classes continue to exist. The questions are, are these classes natural Can an individual be systematically destined to belong to a particular class The answer is no.

Over a century of activism and a struggle aimed at ensuring that each member of a given society has equal rights and opportunities has given the destiny of each person into his or her own hands (Barrow 2009). In the year 1859, the father of modern genetics Charles Darwin fronted his concept of the Struggle for Existence in his book On the Origin of Species. Many biologists in Western Europe were captivated by his projections especially on the theory of natural selection most of them rushing out of the scientific context to project a direct translation of Darwins hypotheses onto humanity. The Victorian society in particular readily embraced the theory of natural selection and haphazardly translated Darwinian ideals out of their scientific context to justify the privileges they enjoyed over their fellow men (Ramesh 2009).

In the modern Western European era, multicultural interaction, a globalised economy and increased integration of international operations has skewed the traditional perception of classes (Ramesh 2009). It does not mean, however, that the society especially in Great Britain is not as class-ridden as it used to be modern features and characteristics of social stratification have emerged to replace the medieval system. Presently, people are classified according to their occupations and their living standards (Cody, 2002). Doctors, university professors, engineers and players in other specialized professional disciplines are accorded more social status than unskilled and casual labourers. How far an individual ascends in his or her professional discipline corresponds to his level of socio-economic and political affluence.

Today, the society in Great Britain like in many other modern societies can be considered to have three broad classes. The Upper Class is made up of descendants of some of the oldest families who have inherited a lot of property from their lineage (Barrow 2009). Most upper class citizens have been titled aristocrats and bear the greatest persuasive power. The Middle Class forms the largest strata of the society and comprised of professionals, business owners, investors, industrialists and shop owners (Barrow 2009). The lower class also called the working class draws its composition from the agricultural households, factory, mine and construction workers and all other non-specialised professionals.

Social conflicts occur in the modern society because of a clash between the classes, the biggest evidence that social classes are not natural. The structure of society is determined by the relationship between its classes (Salazar 2005, pp. 36). Lower classes strive to raise their standards so that they can reap the benefits of nature just like their more privileged counterparts but bureaucrats at the same time deliberately tilt the scales so that the status quo is maintained. Class is defined solely on property ownership and the corresponding affluence (Conley,  Lareau 2008, pp. 72). History takes us back to a time in England when the throne was the sole owner of all land and granted leaseholds according the way it deemed fit. Of course such imperialism has vanished, and statements have been uttered time and again to the effect that the working class has disappeared, the overall living standards are improving and that the gap between the rich and the poor is getting smaller by the day, pointing to the ongoing de-industrialisation of the British economy over the last four decades. The reality of the matter is that classes still largely exist in Britain. Even though globalisation has transferred monumental numbers of casual jobs to Eastern Europe and the Far East, there are still over five million people working in the manufacturing construction industries in the United Kingdom (Morris 2005, pp. 112). Exploitation of these people by a capitalist system is inevitable, so their quality of life continues to deteriorate while the elite of the society continue to thrive.

Independent surveys show that overall standards of living have been rising in Britain, but the country still lags way behind when compared to other industrialised nations when it comes to the connection between education and the opportunities it opens (Morris 2005, pp. 116). The elite are getting more educated while the lower classes continue to wallow in relative ignorance. There is a discrepancy in the quality of life from the onset between a child born in the upper and middle classes and those born in the lower class. Growing up in poverty with constraints in the quality of housing, diet and the lifestyle one lives plus the lack of the capacity by parents in the lower to critically help their sons and daughters relegates members of this class into the poorer neighbourhoods with a low quality social and educational infrastructure (Conley  Lareau 2008, pp. 82). The services these children gain do not give them the capacity to compete on an equal footing with their counterparts who have access to all the social amenities and other resources they may need to make a life for themselves. This process is analogous to Darwins theory of natural selection but in the opposite sense.
As must be evident by now, unequal distribution of resources is the cause of the occurrence of classes and a persistent poverty cycle (Salazar 2005, pp. 52). The acquisition of quality housing, a balanced diet and healthy lifestyles education need a long-term adjustment in the structure of society and the economic and political dispensation so that parity can be established leaving the provision of quality education as the only readily available and effective strategy of freeing citizens in the lower classes from the quagmire they have been stuck in for so long.

Poor neighbourhoods should be allocated more public resources to invest in education and health facilities so that the deprivation they have been subjected to can be compensated to some degree and their dependency on welfare minimised. The amount of resources allocated presently is insufficient, plus the approach the system uses for restoring parity is not viable. Overtaxing the super wealthy who are still making more money cannot end the inequalities in society and unless exploitation and inequality are systematically culled from the socio-economic dispensation, classes are still going to exist in the society against the natural order of things the way they are supposed to be.

Reign of King David (1005 BC  965 BC)
According to the Bible, King david was the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel. As a king, he was considered as one of the righteous and a man of substance for being a good musician, warrior and poet. He was also chosen by Prophet Samuel to replace Saul.

The anointment of David powerfully united the people of the Kingdom of Israel. He created the Jerusalem as the new capital of the Israelite Kingdom. As a symbol of successful united kingdom, King David was able to defeat all his greatest enemies through its military campaigns. The reign of King David spurred the Golden Age of Israelite Kingdom, growing from a Kingdom to an Empire. During these era, the Kingdom of Israel encompassed about 34,000 square kilometers.

Reign of Charlemagne (800 AD)
Charlemagne (Charles the Great) was the King of Franks from 768 up to his death. During his reign, he was able to led his army for the conquest in Italy. He was also responsible for the restoration of Pope Leo III in 799 AD. After Charlemagne saved the position of the pope, he was crowned as Imperator Romanorum (Emperor of the Romans) on December 25, 800 AD. During this era, he was able to conquer present-day Belgium, France, Switzerland and The Netherlands, including parts of Germany and Austria. His success in western Europe paved the way for the development of a central government that in effect reinstated the unity of Old Roman Empire. The coronation of Charlemagne in 800 AD also made him the forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire. His inauguration of the tradition of the imperial coronation by the Pope of the  Roman Catholic Church continued as an important institution of Holy Roman Empire.

Fall of Constantinople (1453)
The fall of Constantinople under Sultan Mehmet II of the Ottoman Empire and his armies was also the captured of the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This event marked the end of the political independence of the Byzantine Empire. The reign of Mehmet II was the translation to Renaissance. It is also consiodered that this event marked the end of the Middle Ages. The fall of Constantinople was also regarded as the beginning of the Third Rome.

Discovery of America by Columbus (1492)
On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the present-island, The Bahamas, which was then called San Salvador. They also sailed in the direction of Cuba and Northern Hispaniola. During his voyage, Columbus was initially disappointed due to the limited resources the place can trade. Later did they realize that the land they are navigating is rich in gold. The discovery of America by Columbus led other European explorers navigate in the same direction Columbus had sailed. This made Columbus the discoverer of the considered New World America. This also marked the beginning of the Age of Exploration and the foundation of the Spanish Empire in the New World.

Protestant Reformation (1517  1564)
The Protestant Reformation began for the purpose of reforming the Catholic Churchs false doctrines. Martin Luther was the one who instigated the Reformation. He called for a debate on the sale of indulgences. Martin Luther disagreed with the sale of the indulgences and and brought discontentment among groups of Reformist. The discontentment of other people was triggered by the media (printing press). This reformation marked the religious break-up between the catholic Church and Protestants.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)
The Spanish Armada is the great fleet sent by Philip II of Spain under the control of Duke of Medina Sidonia to conquer England. Philip IIs reign of Spani marked the glorious days of their power and supremacy. The defeat of the Spanis Armada can be rooted from the big loss of Spain to England in April of 1587. Commander Sir Francis Drake of Engalnd was able to destroyed twenty-four Spanish ships in Cadiz harbor. This weakened the power of the Spanish Armada who was ordered to attacked England in the following year. The defeat of the Spanish Armada proved the inventive tactics of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada. This marked the beginning of the English naval supremacy that lasted until 20th century.

Indutrial Revolution (1750  1914)
Industrial revolution was considered as the greatest transformation of human culture following the discovery of agriculture. In 1750, European economy was mainly focused on agricultural and mercantile sectors but still there is manufacturing inside this two sectors. Triggered by the booming of European population, the trade and manufacture economy of Europe streched globally except in Antartica. Technological innovations also rose into occasion as part of the cultural and economic transformation.

History
The modern church as well as governments has come from very far. These two have at times worked in collaboration with each other and at times their views have contradicted. If the history of the church and the government is looked into critically, one cannot help but wonder about the similarities as well as differences that history portrays. The big question one may ask is whether the modern church is a theocracy just like the church in the medieval age.

According to Halsall (para.1), the church was so powerful during the medieval ages. Church leaders had extreme power which they used to suppress the prince and the kingship. Church leaders were able to subject the empire to them. They believed that if the empire was subdued, the way would open for them to subject the rest of the kingdoms. The church was however, under obligation to the empire and the emperors. The laymen used their powers with wrong intent and acquired massive wealth. The laymen did not realize that all jurisdictions were permitted to the clergy and not to them regarding the people as well as the goods of the ecclesiasts. Laymen in the mediaeval ages imposed heavy burdens and taxes and levies upon the prelates of the churches and on ecclesiastical persons, monastic as well as the people. They required of a tenth or a defined portion of revenue generated by the people. The laymen tried in many ways to subject the people and the clergy to slavery in order to reduce them to their goods as well as their sway. Halsall (para, 16) states that emperors and all those in authority were not supposed to impose or take any payment from the church. The authority was also not supposed to arrest or take possession of the churches belongings. Any person who, while in authority, misused the belongings of the church was excommunicated. The church of the modern world differs from that of the medieval time in that, it cannot impose taxes and levies on the clergy or any other person. However, the government has authority to impose taxes on the church. The powers of the lay men in the medieval ages were not communal their property also was not communal. Every church leader was master of his property. They had freedom to do whatever they liked with whatever they had. However, the church property was not owned by any one person. It was considered as a Gods gift to the community. The Pope did not have the right to misuse the church property.  This is the case even today. Church leaders have authority over all property they own. They however, do not have authority over churchs property all they are required to do is to manage. In the modern times just like the ancient times anyone who misuses the church property is excommunicated

As stated by Fordham University (para, 12), the government under the leadership of the king acted as a central point of power. The king had charge for the common good of all. Church leaders were also required in the exercise of power. The church and its leadership acted to direct mankind to the supernatural end of life. The church as well as the kingship revered God as the Supreme Being (Morrall, p. 90). God was taken as the supreme priest of the world. Church leadership of the medieval age believed that, after Christ ascended to heaven, He left the duty of administering the sacraments to the priests. The church believed that it had more power than the government because there was a supreme priest in the world, but there was no supreme world-wide king. However, the unity of the church required the presence of a worldly authority to settle disputes (Fordham University, para.13). This is very similar to the modern church. It also requires the presence of a higher authority, the government, to settle disputes. The church believed that one man could not hold the authority of the world, but a single person could hold the spiritual authority in the universe. They believed that spiritual power could extend its sanctions far and wide since it was verbal. Secular power could not, on the other hand, extend its sanctions far and wide because it was wielded by hand. It was easier to extend verbal than physical power.

When we look back at the big question, whether the modern church is a theocracy just like the church in the medieval age, we can only conclude that the modern church is not a theocracy and the trend taken by modern governments will never take the church to a theocracy state. Though the modern governments may have a state religion they do not believe in a supernatural power governing the world. The modern church has very little say in the government and it functions under the rule of the government. The government is more powerful than the church.

During the 15th century, the popes granted special rights in the Orient to Portugal. The decrees in 1492 and 1506 divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. All rights of colonization and missions were reserved for Portugal in the East. Spain claimed the territories west of the Canaries. The Portuguese Crown established an office for the control of ecclesiastical affairs in the far-flung colonies. This was called the Padroado. The Padroado reported directly both to the Pope and the Portuguese Crown for instruction. It received religious (and sometimes political) instructions from the pope. The Portuguese Crown granted some religious order special rights to own property. Non-Portuguese missionaries were permitted in Portuguese territories if they recognized the preeminent authority of the Padroado. When the Spaniards sailed around the Cape Horn, they sought to increase their influence in the Moluccas and the Philippine Islands. It was this rivalry which became the source of confusion in Catholic missions in the East. The Padroado retained ecclesiastical authority but the pope dissolved the organization in the early 17th century. What is the implication of the dissolution of the Padroado

The expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula was beneficial to the Portuguese. It would essentially open the ports of the South  an opportunity for more explorations in the South. At the close of the 15th century, Portuguese captured small territories from the Moors in North Africa. These territories became small Portuguese towns which became the center of commerce and exploration. It was said that Prince Henry the Navigator created the first caravel in a North African town. Explorations in the latter half of the 15th century led to small territorial acquisitions in Western and Southern Africa. At the close of the 17th century, Portugal controlled the Canary Islands, Western Sahara, portions of West Africa, and strips of North African territory. What is the force behind Portuguese expansionism in Africa

France and Britain declared war on Germany after Nazi troops had invaded Poland when it refused to shift its eastern borders. In 1940, army men from the Territorial Army were mobilized and sent over to France to aid in its defense. Royal blockades on Germany began to be imposed by the Royal Navy. These impositions had little effects since Germany was obtaining most of its vital supplies through land routes. The German navy started attacking British ships as well as navy forces (Titterton. and Brown, 2002).

After German had invaded and attacked most of the neighboring countries such as France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, it engaged itself in a most dangerous mission to destroy the Royal Air Force. The Nazi troops started bombing British cities and industries in order to demoralize the British people as well as destroy its industries. The bombings were however not successful.  When it became clear to the Germans that the royal forces were not wearing off, it called off the invasions. This marked a turning point to the course of the war and ensured the survival of a sovereign Britain (Dupuy, 1965).

In 1940, the Italians attacked Greece under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Initially, Greece resisted Italian invasion, but the Nazi troops joined in. Greece had refused to let British forces camp in their country because they did not have enough forces to resist the German forces.  British forces were later allowed to enter in large numbers in Greece after Germans had invaded Bulgaria. Although they had critical weakness in their defense, British positioned themselves on the defense line on the northern part of Greece (Cavendish, 2004). Greek forces refused to allow the advancement of the British in their defense line. This together with the governments refusal to withdraw the common line led to their defeat. German forces fully exploited the gap that was left between the British forces on the left and the Greek forces on the right in Albania. The battle of Greece was a determinant for the future course of the war. Hitler and Stalin came to an agreement concerning their relevant spheres of influence (Hellenica, n.d.).

British and Greek forces retreated to Crete after they had been thrown off Greece mainland. In Crete still, the Germans exploited the defense weakness that existed in the British as well as the Greek forces. However, the German paratroops that landed at various points in the island were destroyed and seaborne forces dispersed by the Royal Navy. The battle of Crete, which lasted for only ten days, saw the death of over 4000 German troops and curtailed the force with which German troops had swept throughout Europe (Titterton, and Brown, 2002).

According to Xylouris (n.d.), the British and Greek forces retreated to Crete because they believed that, with the help of New Zealand troops, Australian forces and local civilians on the island they could resist and defeat the German as well as Italian forces. The Greek and the British forces had been unable to match the German amour and their attacks from the air and therefore sought for a higher ground where they could mount their artillery and lob their mortar shells down a massive enemy. This made them to retreat to Crete which was a higher ground. The geographical location of Crete had its three air fields within striking distances of the Romanian oilfields, and provided a base to strike at Italy, North Africa as well as Greece. Its geographical setting also acted as defense for the allied forces. The British felt that with the help of the Royal Forces, they could outdo the Germany sea forces. They believed that after closing all the sea routes, Germany forces could not get military supply from the main land. The allied forces went to Crete because they wanted to prevent the use of the island by Germans as a springboard for their operations further towards the Mediterranean East Basin.

The performance of the Italian military in the Second World War has been rated poor. The fighting was poor and they surrendered readily. However, there are incidences where they demonstrated bravery and succeeded. The Italian soldiers in the Second World War have been labeled as cowards due to their failure to takeover Greece which was a weak nation and their poor fighting in Africa. The Italian military performed poorly due to lack of advanced weapons, good leaders and enthusiasm to attain Mussolinis objectives in the war.

When war started in Europe, the Italian military was not ready for war. Despite this, Mussolini anxiously wanted to involve Italy in the continental affairs and therefore forced the unprepared Italy into war to satisfy his ego. The economic abilities of Italy were limited and therefore could not acquire the much needed military equipment. The Italian military entered war with weapons that could have been useful only in the First World War. They were not equipped with modern tanks and used vehicles which were lightly armored and poor arms. By the time the military acquired advanced equipment, it was too late. Although the Italian air force seemed strong on paper, it was not well equipped with proper equipments. They had many bi plane aircrafts and few and poorly designed modern fighters.

The Italian military was also commanded by incompetent generals who were appointed by Mussolini because of their loyalties and not qualification. Moreover, there were no experienced military men to lead the Italian military. The military was commanded by men from loyal families, some of whom had no military experience and in many cases threw the military into battles they knew they cannot win. The navy which has very few ships was further weakened by the conformist ideas of its admiralty. This is supported by the fact that the Italian forces fought better when they were put under or fought together with the German troops. They actively participated in Russia invasion where they demonstrated their strength despite the harsh weather and the large number of Russian troops. The Italian Alpini for example proved their bravery in the Russia invasion. The attempt to invade Greece in Albania was a disaster to the Italian army where they were unable to defeat the weak Greek forces. However, when the German generals took over the command, the Italian forces fought well than when they were commanded by Italian generals.

Another factor that led to the poor performance of the Italian military in the Second World War was lack of enthusiasm. Italy was not interested in the war and its entrance into war was met with despair. Mussolini and his close fascist allies were the only ones who were interested in the war. The troops did not trust their generals and did not have a strong desire to battle for their country. When they fought against the Greeks, the Italians did not have passion while the Greek troops were ready to die for their country.

In conclusion, the Italian military performed poorly in the Second World War because they did not have the willingness and desire to fight, they were not well equipped and their leadership was poor. The troops were therefore not cowards but these factors led to their inferior performance.

Based on the lessons of the First World War, the leadership of nations involved in the Second World War was aware of the importance of oil due to the high mechanization of the military. Efficient and constant supply of oil to the military was essential for any nation that planned to involve itself in the war. By owning oil or securing a constant supply of the important commodity, Hitler believed that he world be able to rule the whole world. Although Hitler had several military faults which led to his failure in the Second World War, he can be credited for his strategies to secure economic stability and constant supply of oil years before the war erupted. When he acquired the leadership of Germany in the early 1930s, he implemented strategies aimed at increasing oil supply in the country. This included exploration of oil fields and production of synthetic oils.

By 1939, six years after Hitler had acquired power, crude oil had increased by three folds to about 4.5 million barrels annually. However, Germany like other European countries had no petroleum but had coal. Hitler ordered German engineers to produce manmade fuels from coal which increased to 31 million barrels of synthetic oil per year in 1941. In anticipation for the war, Hitler had also imported and stockpiled fuel from Soviet Union and other small counties such as Romania. Before the war started, the Germans were therefore aware that conquering was not enough to win the war. They made appropriate use of the oil field in the conquered territories which they defended with passion. Capturing the enemies sources of oil was therefore a primary task and if necessary, they were forced to destroy them if overwhelmed by the enemy. They used this strategy in Poland where they captured 30 percent of oil fields in Galicia in the year 1939. They were also able to secure oil supply from the Soviet Union where they negotiated sale of up to 70 percent of their oil with Stalin. Due to the role of oil commandos in capturing oil fields, Hitler was delighted by their work and he established the oil brigade with an aim of expanding their operations.

As the war progressed, capturing oil field became Hitlers major war strategy. The defeat of France was particularly a big achievement in the Germans oil supply since Hitler was for the first time able to control more oil fields than anticipated. In the west, the Germans had vast reserves of oil which was over 20 million barrels captured from France, Belgium and the Dutch. In the west invasion, the Germans had used only 12 million barrels and therefore had a net gain of eight million barrels. The oil commandos successively acquired up to 1.5 million French oil gallons without a gun shot. However, the Germans concentrated on the quantity of oil and not the quality which led to poor machine performance. This was as opposed to the British who had access to more quality oil from the United States during the Battle of Britain which led to the fall of Hitler.
         
In conclusion, the main source of oil for the Germans in the Second World War was from captured oil fields and oil reserves. The Germans had established an oil commando within its army which its main assignment was to capture and manage oil fields. However, they also had a fast supply of synthetic oil.

World War II was the most gigantic conflict in the world history. In fact, the world is still leaving with the consequences of the war. The war began on September 1st 1939 when Germany invaded Poland without warning which led to the start of the war. On the 3rd of the same month (September, 1939), Britain and France were at war with the Germany and within a week, New Zealand, Australia, Canada and South Africa joined other countries in the war. According to Richard he described the war as horrible, since it occupied a major area from the streets of Stalin grand, to the hedgerows of Normady, the icy mountains of Norway to the sweltering deserts of Libya, the insect infested jungles of Burma to the coral reefed islands of the pacific, violence prevailed.

What led to the war 
The war began in 1939 to 1945 making it six years of massive destruction of properties and loss of lives. On land, ocean and in the air, Poles fought the Germans, Italians fought the Americans and the Japanese fought the Australians. The war involved two axis of power that was well organized led by Germany, Japan, Italy, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria were on one side, while Britain and the United States led the other wing that composed France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia, this indicates that the Britain allies were many as compared to Germany and the allies.

According to Lloyd, in his analysis on the World War 2, he argued that, certain eminent factors led to the beginning of the Second World War. The reasons he gave were diverse basing from individuals ambitions, supremacy, aggression, ammunition, organizations such as the United Nations peace keepers and the failure to address important issues by the world super powers or the G8. A scholar and an author by the name Chris Bellamy blamed the then president Adolf Hitler on his Endeavour to occupy more land especially in the East according to his Nazi policy of occupation of land by the use of force.

The major reason why Germany decided to join the war basing on Peters argument, Germany decided to join the war because Hitler used the harsh limitations that were set against Germany in the treaty of Versailles that stated that stated that Germany had a right to acquire land where German speaking people lived.
It is therefore vivid that the war was typically based on personal ambitions to acquire more land, satisfaction of individual ambitions and the search for supremacy of each member states by being disobedience to the treaty to observe peace. For instance, Hitler used dirty tricks so that he could not be viewed as the oppressor such as dressing up a prisoner in a Polish uniform to attack the German radio station as an excuse to invade Poland and Europe.

In March 1941, the U.S. began to support the British in the form of arms and missiles through the Lend-Lease Act. In January 1942, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to create a Combined Chiefs of Staff and Germany their first priority. After three years, the Allies did win the war in Europe. Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 7th 1945. This tells us more that Britain did not entertained the idea of becoming an ally of Germany in world war Two, a conflict which was finally settled with the use of nuclear weapons..

Hitlers invasion and occupation by his military beyond Sudetenland portrayed his unpredictable nature and lack of good will to honor treaties a consideration that resulted to the fall of Czechoslovakia and emergence of the Second World War.  While it would have been expected that the give and take method employed by Britain premier to please Hitler to maintain peace in the region and most importantly making him keep off the rest of Czechoslovakia, his insatiable demand to expand the Germany territory beyond its boarders was unstoppable.  Historians of the time views on Hitlers invasion of Czechoslovakia appear to rhyme with those of the emergent analysts who indicate that Hitlers indication that he would not invade Czechoslovakia was only pretence.  It is from this consideration that this paper provides a critical analysis of the 1938 Munich agreement and the fall of Czechoslovakia.

Events that preceded the 1938 Munich Treat 
A clearer picture that derives and points towards the formation and signing of the Munich treaty lay in the immediate past.  Hitler as analysts indicate remained a highly unpredictable individual who could indeed go to any length if he felt that he stood to benefit.

The World War I and the treaty of Versatile
The Conclusion of World War I left Germany wounded than any other country.  The Allied Powers namely Russia, France and the British concluded and forced Germany to agree that it had caused the war and was to make major disarmament and payments to them.  Particularly, Hitler is reported to have reacted angrily and indicated that the reparations of US  33 billion (equivalent of US  132 billion in the year 2007) which Germany was to pay in reparations to the entente powers was unfair to the country.  While indicating that indeed it was a battle of the titans, Hitler further read mischief in the manner that the treaty was conducted.
While French Prime minister Clemenceau saw taming of German and its allies as a critical outline towards retaining of French empire, the British was considered to view the scenario with a business perspective.  However, with the realization of strategic repositioning as the World War II drew near, a critical shift toward self defense and regional security became critical.  Therefore, it was indeed true that the Versatile Treaty was actual pointer of the need for revenge and control by the different European powers.  
The violation of the Versatile treaty and the demand for a new treaty

By mid 1930s, the Germany government indicated that indeed it would no longer honor the treaty as it was fraudulent and lacked the needed truth in making the country loose its focus towards expansion and further prosperity for its people.  Hitler embarked on a strong creation of the military which was against Part V of the Versatile Treaty.  Young men were forced into the army as the military took a new turn war was in the horizon.  In a last attempt to limit the expansionist model of Germany, United Kingdom signed naval agreement which was viewed by Hitler to create a possible alliance against the French and the mighty Soviet.  Notably, this treaty was later floundered by Germany as it invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939.  The Rhineland region which was previously demilitarized under the versatile treaty was further occupied by Germany military and therefore considered to point at possible immediate confrontation.

Invasion of Sudetenland and further expansionism 
One thing that was evident with Hitler as modern historians derive from his orientation is the need to wield more power over his rivals and expand his territory with minimal regard of its inhabitants.  Under this consideration therefore, Hitler justified the need to edge Sudetenland for himself as it was occupied by Germans but lay in Czechoslovakia.  To Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland was considered critical as it was a major stronghold with its mountainous outset against the Germans military.  However, Czechoslovakians further felt the great attachment to the region for its rich coal, steel and ironworks that defined their economy.
It is worth noting that though Czech had a strong army it could not counter that of larger and more determined countries such as the Nazis.   To indicate his might and intent, Hitler troops invaded the neighboring Austria and implemented anschluss that unified Austria with Germany as its extended territory.  At this point, Czechoslovakia invasion by Hitler was considered to be the next on the line as his troops started rolling to its border.

From the British and France standpoint, Czechoslovakia was an important country and releasing it to Germany would point at two interpretations.  To begin with, the viewpoint that Germany had won the expansion orientation could facilitate its winning further support in Europe. Besides, it could send signals of possible resignation from the war.  Therefore, should the determined Hitler have been allowed to capture the whole of the whole of Czechoslovakia  

The Munich Treaty and its after math
The need to use non-military diplomacy and signing of the treaty
The call by Czechoslovakia president for further protection from Germany by the British and France invoked key concerns that culminated to consideration of a treaty.   Having experienced the bloodlines of the First World War with clear annotation of the main cause to have been Germany, there was cause for alarm.  Indeed, the French premier reference to Germany to be out to cause a more blood came to pass as the Munich Treaty was later rubbished by Hitler.   As a result, search for mechanisms best to address their concerns resulted to a give and take consideration.  However, who would be negatively affected by the repercussion of a give and take option Is it indeed fair to the Czechs and would the treaty last While these questions appeared evident to Chamberlain, the British prime minister, he sought to involve other key Europe powers to arrive at an agreement that would reduce the Hitlers expansionism without invoking possible need for armed intervention.  

Chamberlain therefore organized a meeting with his counterpart French Premier and the Italian Duce Benito Mussolini.   Significantly, Czechoslovakia was the subject of the discussion and was therefore not invited to the talk.  The British premier argued that there was the need to protect Czechoslovakia using the entire possible diplomatic outset and therefore reduce possibility of getting to military confrontation.   This consideration was therefore accepted by all the parties representing the key powers in Europe.  It was therefore concluded that Hitlers demand to expand his territory to Czechoslovakia be allowed to Sudetenland as a condition that he would not expand to the rest of the country.  

Requirements of the treaty
The signing of the well prepared document required that Czechs agree with the arrived resolution that Sudetenland which was occupied by German natives was given to Hitler on condition that he would not proceed to the rest of the country.  Notably, the though Czechoslovakia had a well organized military, it was impossible to defeat Germany without the support of the major forces from Britain and France.  The country was therefore required to agree with terms or go it alone in the fight against the Nazis the latter was indeed impossible and the Czechs had to agree with the established agreement.

The Czech government was expected to evacuate its people from the region and leave the existing infrastructure without damages by the October 10th of the year 1938.  At this point, the four leaders agreed to form a commission that would incorporate agents from the Czech government to facilitate adherence to the established conditions.  Though the inclusion of the Czech government at this point was considered significant, it was expected that the country would voluntarily agree.

To avoid possible conflict between Czech and Germany military, the treaty further provided a walk out plan where evacuation and occupation was expected to take place simultaneously but in stages.  Particularly, the treaty divided the Sudetenland into four territories which Germany was expected to occupy successively by tenth October of the year 1938.

An international commission was further provided for by the treaty to facilitate establishment of a territory that a plebiscite would be conducted.  As a result, international bodies (mostly consisting of Germany, France, Britain and Italy) were to take charge of the territory until the time that a plebiscite would have been concluded, (a date not later than the end of November).  The Czech government was further expected in a period of twenty eight days (4 weeks) after the signing of the agreement, to release all the forces of Sudeten-German who would wish to be released.  On the other hand, Hitler was also expected to release all the Czech prisoners that were held in its prisons on political ground.  

As the treaty was signed into action on September 29th 1938 and announced on the 30th of September, the commitment of the four governments, Britain, Germany, Italy and France was evident, however the Czech president Eduard Benes was reading from a different script.  

The treatys aftermath and reactions by different parties
While the signing of the treaty was seen to come at a time when all the parties appeared to be least prepared for war, scholars indicate that all was not well.

Britain 
Upon his return from Munich where the agreement was settled, Chamberlain the British premier received a heroic welcome which was seen to have guided Europe in evading another military confrontation that would have been expected to be worse than the previous World War I.  Notably, little did Chamberlain know that that similar to the treaty of the versatile, the ties that restricted Germany from deviating from its demands were very weak and could easily be broken.  From the Chamberlain point of view, a new window of trading with Germany was finally evident and both countries were on the track for further cooperation.  Scholars in the country however, have accused Chamberlain of his poor focus and fixated outlook towards the expected results as opposed to critical review of the whole scenario.  

Czechoslovakia
The pain and anguish of losing the only child from an unjust ruling has been equated to the feelings of Czechoslovaks after realization of the treaty and its demands. Failure to include at least some diplomats from Czechoslovakia was considered as a sense of sabotage because the country had military agreements with Italy and France.  A major question to ask at this point is whether indeed the two powers (France and Italy) were forced or threatened to agree on the new agreement  Upon his realization of this outlay, Eduard Benes resigned as he understood Hitler had gotten a direct route for expanding his territory to the whole of Czechoslovakia.  

Germans
The reaction by Hitler as analysts tend to agree reflected his personality which was mostly characterized by the need to employ all mechanisms including false pretence to achieve his goal.  Following the strict standpoints that treaty of Versatile had taken on Germany, it was least expected that Hitler would actually consider honoring an agreement that further limited his expansion.  However, Germans considered the pact to have been ruled in their favor.  Most importantly, Hitler was happy for being granted access to the rich Sudetenland which had key resources such as steel, coal and heavy industries to drive his war machinery.   Indeed, he used this as the main springboard in the latter invasion of the remaining part of the Czechoslovakia.

Other leaders 
The news of the treaty was received with mixed reactions both in Europe and globally.  The United States indicated its consideration of neutrality and further intent to keep away from the politics and affairs of Europe.  However, there were concerns over human rights which the United States indicated must be adhered to.  Besides, taking into consideration the position taken by Britain which was a great ally of the United States, the latter did not rule out getting involved in enhancing the sanctity of the Czechs.  In Europe, most countries understood the changing colors of Hitler and were therefore unclear of his willingness to follow the pact. Having annexed Austria and made it part of the Nazi entity, other countries such as Polland had a genuine cause for worry.

The fall of Czechoslovakia 
Breaking the treaty
While the conclusion of the Munich Treaty was seen to indicate that war had at last been avoided, the same consideration was not realized.  As president Eduard Benes had pointed out, Hitler saw a golden opportunity to occupy the rest of Czechoslovakia.  Notably, the previous well formulated plan to attach Czechoslovakia by Hitler before the Munich treaty was signed dawned to many that it had just been shelved and would be executed in due course.  At this time however, Chamberlain and French premier were still considering that Germany would honor the agreement and therefore sought to take a wait and took option.  On March 15th the Operation Southeast saw the Czechoslovakia separated into two, with Slovakia being declared a Nazi territory.  As the German Troops proceeded to the remaining part of Czechoslovakia, it was clear that the whole treaty was indeed forsaken and Czechoslovakia was no more.

The immediate aftermath 
As the treaty was expected to serve as the immediate proof from sliding the region and the globe into war, the key powers sensed sabotage in Hitlers renewed consideration.  Britain and French premier immediately sought to mobilize their resources related to the military ready for war.  Indeed, the British premier was particularly blamed for lack of effective foresight to read the Hitlers mind.  It was argued that with Hitler now seeking to further invade Poland and his military personnel in all of its boarders, failure to tame him would lead to Germany taking all of Europe.  In his view, Mussolini indicated that he would seek to support Czechoslovakia from the earlier agreement.

Summary and conclusion 
It is from the above discussion that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement that, Hitlers invasion and occupation by his military beyond Sudetenland portrayed his unpredictable nature and lack of good will to honor treaties a consideration that resulted to the fall of Czechoslovakia and emergence of the Second World War. The demand for the 1938 Munich Treaty as it came out in the paper was a historical progression and a projection from the former treaty of Versatile.  Having learnt from the previous experience of the World War I, the Euro powers were not ready to see similar bloodshed repeated. Besides, the European key powers (Britain, Italy, France and Germany) saw various benefits to be accrued from the agreement.  Though Czechoslovakians appeared to read between the lines, a consideration shared by most Germany neighbors, the parties involved in the agreement took Hitler with utmost good faith.  The agreement was indeed comprehensive and provided for key checks that would have certainly avoided any possible bloodshed.  However, abuse of the same agreement by Germany saw its further invasion and fall of Czechoslovakia.  It was not until this invasion was evident to the great powers in Europe that they intervened in support of Czechoslovakia the war was finally inevitable.

The one time infamous Islands are situated some 500 kilometres off shore to Argentina and thirteen thousand kilometres from United Kingdom in the South Atlantic Ocean. It had long been under British occupation since 1833.

In 2nd April1982 the Argentinean marines landed on the east shores of the Falkland Island. A massive Argentinean force invaded the Falkland Islands.  Argentina was also having military tension with the neighbour Chile over another group of Islands. The Southern part of Argentina housed the most well trained troops that could be deployed to reinforce the defence in Falkland Islands. This action would render the boarder undefended with Chile.  The Argentineans had long held claims of ownership of these Islands in terms of proximity of the territory and the history and geography of the region. The Argentinean military regime did not expect a British retaliation by any means but they were quite mistaken and the troops were ordered from the North and Central parts of the country to face the dispatched British forces.  These Argentine troops were lacking training they were ill equipped and completely unready to confront the enemy. When the Argentinean army invaded the Falkland Islands they captured the small British garrison. The British code name was Corporate for this operation to eradicate the Argentinean occupation over the Falkland Islands. The British troops were highly equipped and well trained when they arrived near the Argentinean forces. British Naval task force engaged in the Argentinean navy and Air force while the land was taken up by an amphibious assault. The retaking of the Island was considered an extremely difficult task When the Argentinean army invaded the Falkland Islands they captured the small British garrison and on 3rd of April 1982 the Governor representing the United Kingdom with seventy royal marines surrendered to the Argentinean army.  To strengthen the occupation Argentina took over the South Georgia Islands and the South Sandwich Islands. The British forces retaliated almost instantly and launched a counter invasion by dispatching a Military task force. After a sever confrontation the Argentinean forces surrendered on 14th June 1982.

The Argentineans had long held claims of ownership of these Islands in terms of proximity of the territory along with the history and geography of the region. Argentina was expecting a non-significant reaction from the British therefore the Argentine troops that were deployed in the Falkland were lacking training in that weather they were ill equipped and completely unready to confront the enemy. The British code name was Corporate for this operation to eradicate the Argentinean occupation over the Falkland Islands. The British troops are claimed to be highly equipped and well trained for the situation when they arrived near the Falkland Islands to confront the Argentinean forces. British Naval task force engaged in the Argentinean navy and Air force while the land was to be taken up by an amphibious assault. The retaking of the Island was considered to be an extremely difficult task. The main reason being the lack of air cover and according to the US Navy the counter invasion was considered to be a Military Impossibility.

If we study the demography of these Islands we find that these Islands do not have good weather. The economy and the social life were very limited around the time of the war. It was not a significant tourist attraction. Majority of people did not even heard about this group of Islands and not even about their locations. The piece of territory captured the medias attention and came under spot light when this war occurred. Many critics say that this war was fought to attain political objectives rather than to serve a National cause. It was a risky campaign by all means but even when the territory has been attained back by the British forces but it remains a matter of dispute between the two countries.

When one studies the history of these Islands and this war taking place, one can easily arrive at the following typical questions. Some of these questions are of political nature but they have a profound influence over the operational aspects of the war and the measures that were taken place to provide for any later operations to defend or strengthen the position of Military presence of UK in the region. The British forces jointly executed the operation Corporate and did not require any help from her allies.
How much the Island was important to any or both rival countries
How did the Margret Thatcher benefit from this war
What was the Argentinean political background of this war
Was the British military more powerful than the Junta
If the British forces were not more powerful than Junta, how close the British forces were to defeat

Organizational Culture
The war had a profound effect on the culture of all three armed forces of Britain namely the Air force, the Army and the Navy. It was a war that Britain won and the media in the country off course portrayed an image of Britain that suited the nationalism and patriotism with writers, movie makers, singers, poets and gamming software developers did enrich the culture of the British nation. Along these lines the British military soldiers definitely felt proud and many of them were decorated and awarded in one way or another. Many of them were promoted boasting their morale and patriotism. The men found new confidence in their military and political leadership. For those who died they were also celebrated as heroes with commemorations enriching the British Military culture and heritage. This war also influenced the Military organizational culture by pointing out the weaknesses and strengths of the British forces when they confronted a military like Argentina on a very brief notice. This war also led to update Military equipment to further strengthen the defence requirement and making it possible to achieve further Military objectives as being part of NATO. This war also practically revealed the capability of the British forces campaigning on their own. This determination of objectives to attain a future possible military goal also played an important role is shaping up the culture of the British armed forces.

This war created a debate on many levels and on several grounds to understand the defence requirements of the Island UK. The British forces also benefited by the increments in the defence spending. This also in a way benefited the culture of the British armed forces.

The Interoperational responsibility of the British Air force, Navy and Army
(Pre-conflict defence Planning)
There was some rising tension between the two countries when activity was also pointed out by many during 19th March 1982 as some of the Argentinean scrap metal workers landed on the South Georgia Island and a Her Majestys Ships (HMS) had to be dispatched against this action and after 29th March 1982 this lead to war between UK and Argentina.

The British government was unaware of the fact that such an invasion is possible. It is known that there were such decision that the UK will soon sell out its most powerful battle ships and the Royal Navy will be reduced only to just a coastal guard service. As soon as this conflict arise these decisions were reverted to enhance the defence. The Falkland Island dispute between Argentina and Britain was there since the 1960s.
The British Foreign Secretary suggested the dispatched of a nuclear submarine (SSN) but the First Sea Lord insisted that a small balanced task force of SSN was enough with two frigates and logistic shipping. It is believed that there were many command and contingency factors which were not revealed. In the shade of these facts the command and control had to take action quite earlier along with diplomatic efforts.

Many experts indicated that this dispute will become a crisis when Argentina took the decision to invade on 26th March 1982. On that Wednesday evening Mrs Thatcher held a meeting with the John Nott, ministers and other government officials which laid stress on the ongoing problems and dangers of sending a task force to liberate the Falkland Islands. As the Admiral Leach entered in the picture it was decided that a full task force should be dispatched to the South Atlantic. As Admiral Leachs professional judgment he suggested to the Prime Minster and emphasized on the fact that the solution to this crisis was to send a task force immediately which came out to be a wise decision. The task force that had been put together consisted of five main groups. The five commanders belonging to each group reported back to leach. The task force consisted of the following Task Groups.

(1)Carrier Battle Task Group
(2)Amphibious Task Group
(3)Landing Force task Group
(4)South Georgia Task Group
(5)Submarine Task Group

The plan was to retake the Falkland Island and the South Georgia Island in two separate missions.
As indicated before the British government decided to have significant reductions in its Navy fleet and many of the greatest weapons of the Royal Navy had to be sold to reduce cost but this situation turned everything around.  At the same time as the Argentinean military high command was plotting a plan against the British territory the air force was expecting a full supply of Exocet missiles.

The Argentinean leadership was planning to take over the disputed Island and force Britain into negotiation. In any warfare the timing is of crucial nature. The secrets of the war have been revealed quite later on by the intelligence officials of Argentina. It has been pointed out that the Argentineans had planned the invasion much later than it had occurred.

Many experts speculate that if that had happened the outcome had been drastically different and against the favours of the British. Britain could have failed even if the war had prolonged for say two weeks.
  It has been said by the high command officials of the Argentinean that received information that a British nuclear submarine had been dispatched and were heading towards the Falkland Islands. It was a very big rumour as British officers deny this now. You cannot see the submarines and you do not know where they are and you have to rely on assumptions as stated by one of the British officials of that time.

It was a huge misinterpretation of intelligence on the side of Argentina to act fast and capture Malvinas few months earlier. This fact has extreme weight for the British winning the war against Argentina and restoring the British government to the Island.

Leach pointed out that it was dangerously difficult but not impossible since the Argentinean army was quite powerful with the government in their hands. The Marshall law in Argentina was a huge adverse factor for the British task force and the command and control behind them but at the same time the fact that Argentina was in a dispute with Chile was a very big positive that fell into the favour of the British retaliation even if the group of disputed territory had less proximity with the British.

On the day of 1-2 April 1982 almost parallel to the invasion Leach gave a green signal to Fieldhouse to prepare the task force effectively executing the orders of Margret Thatcher. The first unit started its sail on Monday 5 April towards the South Atlantic. The British Prime Minister also organized a War Cabinet to receive advice and consultancy as to facilitate the decision making capacity rendered such a body to be inevitable for the Prime Minister. The full cabinet was also there to give progress reports as the state developments took place. During the Falkland War a very important factor came in the front from the operational point of view. Any organization that is required to function efficiently needs to be in a state of harmony and coherence, even if it is an organization of troops the most important factor is smooth communication. In the Falkland war the difference of terms usage caused confusion among the Royal Navy and the Royal Air force. UK invested heavily in its war machine prepared against Argentine. It was said that UK used every tool in the kit bag to get the Falkland Islands back.

Post-conflict defence planning 
The year the war took place, it was announced by the officials that the weapons lost in the Falkland war would be replaced, such as aircrafts and sea vessels.  After the war took place certain experts in their publications speculated that the amount of measures taken in the defence budgets are not enough for the growing threat of Russian forces in those days.

The unexpected and sudden invasion of the Falklands was a very persuasive factor that led to post conflict and post war policy changes of Britain.

The lessons that were learnt from the war of Falkland Islands lead to the measures that had to be taken against threats from Russia and other potential enemies of Britain and her allied countries.  At the same time it was announced that the defence budget would be increased beyond 3 percent. It was also pointed out that the garrison that was destroyed during the war also had to be replaced and its defence would be reinforced to a huge extent. The defence policy and measures that were being taken was not going to be extremely drastic had the Argentinean invasion not taken place. The Thatcher government was facing difficult challenges and the financial short fall was around. This war in the South Atlantic made things politically easy for the government to increase defence spending and it paved the way for Margret Thatcher to be re-elected as Prime Minister for the second time.  The pressure on the British treasury was mounting but the Thatcher government was able to convince the treasury to increase the defence spending as the war compensations were absolutely necessary. The Prime Minster later on appointed Michael Heseltine for some defence reductions and concerns started to build up in relation to the defence requirement. It became immensely necessary to increase the defensive and offensive capabilities of the Royal armed forces to meet with future threats. The war also facilitated in the change of foreign policy for defence agreements for the countries like Australia.  The British government wanted to plug all the loop holes in its defence hopping to mitigate any further threats. The amphibious force played a major part in winning the war against Argentinean forces and the role of this force was announced to be kept in continuation in 1986. In short this war persuaded the British government to be more vigilant over the UKs defence needs and requirements.

It has been said that Margret Thatcher had benefitted greatly from the Falkland factor and the defence budget also flourished but as a few years passed by other major spending departments along with the Treasury and White Hall was getting concerned with the lavishness being offered to the defence. The reviews started to target more and more to the Defence spending and there were high concerns. It seemed like the magic of Falkland war was wearing off and the complexities of budget reallocation were increasing. In other words the Falkland war factor alone was not good enough to invest in British sea war machines. A shift in policy was eminently taking place in the financial infrastructure of United Kingdom.

The political position of the armed forces in general and the Navy in the aftermath of the Falkland war dramatically improved with Margret Thatcher forming close ties with the task force commander Sir John Fieldhouse as the Navy was a shining star in the afterglow of the war. The war victory gave a very firm base to the political ground of the country affirming good relations to be formed in between the politicians and the leaders of the armed forces contributing heavily to political stability, the institutional strength and boosting the moral of confidence British nation.

In order to control post war cost a study was carried out in 1983 by CDS Field marshal Bramall. His post war study had links with the Falkland war. He claimed on the basis of his study that the NATO forces deployed in the United Kingdom should have out-of-area emphasis in order to have flexibility in terms of protecting the interest of the Atlantic Alliance. It was claimed that the threats to United Kingdom and her allies were greater outside than inside Europe particularly insisting on the oil reserves in the Middle East. The study by Bramall consisted of two papers one on NATO and the other on out-of-area operations but this policy was never announced to become an official policy. This study was based on these two options to determining a balance in utilization and the allocation of the Royal armed forces. As these studies were being discussed there was some other school of thought that was flourishing with emphasis on functionalism and centralised control of the armed forces. This thought was the approached of one of the political figures in power at that time the secretary of state Heseltine. The implementation of this policy was expected to control costs making the life little better for those people who were making decisions of cost allocations of the budget. This approach according to some had an interesting suggestions to rule out the out-of-area policy indicating that there are no eminent military threats and crisis that would endanger the UKs global interests. This thinking was soon to be change when the Heseltine and Margret Thatcher had a major disagreement over this issue and the Sectary of state stormed out of the office of the Prime minister and was soon replaced by George Younger in 1986.  Sir John Field house became the new Secretary of Defence with a lot of out-of-area experience.

Component Capabilities
In this passage each component of the forces (relating to Air, sea and ground) and there elements are discussed of the two forces in confrontation. The British counter invasion as it was called was based around some four aircraft carriers and six ships that carried logistics as the navy was dispatched with other vessels carrying amphibious forces and other military equipment. Both the Argentinean military and the British military were accepted to be of equal capabilities. There were certain factors that have been indicated by some historians, scholars and the war analysts that point to the fact that the Argentineans were at a hairs breadth to winning the war. It is believed that the overall capabilities of the two forces facing each other the only difference was the British forces were much more organized and well prepared.

It was known that there were only four air fields on the bone of contention between the two countries. The longest and most paved one was at Stanley but all these runways, including the runway at Stanley were extremely unsuitable for taking off for Air Force jets. The Argentineans were not able to establish a fully operational Airbase on the Island this was a significant setback to the air combat capability of the Argentinean Air force. This fact itself compelled the Argentina to launch most of the attacks from the mainland 500 kilometres away from the war zone. On the other hand the Air jets of the British armed forces were extremely capable of taking off and landing on the air craft carrier. The British were able to conserve fuel for their aircrafts and make effective strikes. This was an enormous advantage and became the axis factor for the British to prevail in the war.

Daggers in the Argentine Air Force did some damage to Ships and were able to come back effectively boosting the morale of Argentinean pilots. When two Mirage III were shot down of the Argentinean Air Force compelled the Air force commanders to separate the Daggers and A-4 Sky-Hawks for striking purposes realizing the offensive capability of the aircrafts against the Royal forces. Stanley was defended as the strong hold by Argentine until the end of the war.

 As the war progressed in this region, even after Black Buck, provided with ammunition and medical supplies during night flights as the relief operations continued. The wounded were also air lifted and replaced as this particular position was reinforced with powerful anti aircraft weapons. The resistance of the Argentinean defences continued until the last day of the Falkland war for Port Stanley.

As the battles of the Falkland Island was being fought in the Air and Land a very important development occurred in the two British task forces which included Ships and submarines encountered an Argentinean fleet. Both of the forces encountered each other and engaged in battle as they were operating in the vicinity of the Falkland Islands. A big blow to Argentinean navy occurred when HMS conquer sank Belgarano killing three hundred and twenty seamen onboard and seven hundred crew members were rescued despite the chill cold waters and bad weather. These survivors were taken in as Prisoners of War (POW). This was a very big chunk of achievement for the British sea forces because it nearly comprised of half of the loss of lives in all of the Argentinean deaths in the Falkland war. The one most important capability of submarine is that you cannot see them and you do not know where they are so the enemy has to rely upon assumptions. The damage to the Argentinean Navy was so immense that they had to turn back their sea battle ships although the Argentinean Navy was still quite capable of facing the British advancements.  This incident also played a crucial role in the establishment of British Naval superiority around the seas of Falkland Islands.
 The Argentinean cause suffered a huge blow and a set back as they width drew their Naval war machine which included a submarine, two escorted destroyers and a battle group centred on an aircraft carrier away from the British shelling.

One of the most deadly weapons that the Argentineans had was a huge threat to the Royal Navy battle vessels were the anti ship missiles that were launched from Argentinean fighter jets. Sheffield was hit by an Exocet missile. These missiles were a major threat to the British War ships. It was intercepted by the Argentinean forces and in this incident killed 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. The ship was evacuated and continued to burn for the next six days.

 The Exocet missiles were highly capable of destroying sea ships one hit on target but there was one thing that favoured British forces and that was the Argentinean did not had a very huge stock of these weapons.  If there had been more Exocet missiles the Royal Navy would have fallen victim in the hands of Argentinean Air force.

This incident started to pose threat that was becoming an infliction to the British War resources by the Exocet and Extendard missiles. The capability of the Royal Military was put on to the test and the concern related with missiles created room for the birth of Mikado. This involved heavy numbers of SAS members.
Their mission was to destroy these missiles and the equipment which operated those weapons. SAS was also assigned the task killing pilots in their residences. The plans of these operations were never executed as the SAS (Special Air Service) had the skills, training and capability to carry out this operation, the SAS officials termed them with suicide.

The regions of the mainland where these operations were expected to be carried out were heavily defended with Argentinean troops making the penetration even more difficult. Many of the forces which were actively defending those territories were well equipped and were trained by British forces in the pre war era. After the war the military officials of Argentina solemnly admitted that they were expecting some sort of a SAS operation from the British side which never happened.
The bad weather in a battle field is a factor that puts Air force machines at direct risk dramatically cutting down their capability to function and operate. Sometimes the weather was so harsh that plans of attack have to be rescheduled or abandoned.  

The joint operation
The British armed forces were directed toward the South Georgia Island and it was a plan to capture that part of Falkland Island as the initial task. There is some evidence that it was a decision from the Military tactical point of view or from the perspective of the Military operations.

The joint operation of the British forces had a key value in the attack on the Falkland Islands. The reason being that neither force namely Army, Navy or the Air force could liberate the Falkland Islands alone. It was a joint operation which had to be coordinated in a way that would induce a maximum offensive and defensive resultant force against the enemy. There were some inefficiency that resulted in the joint warfare but the outcome of the war at least reached its target. The combat that was decisive was mainly fought in the air, the action on the ground was of a secondary nature. If the British Navy forces were not able to deter the Argentinean air attack against its fleets the chances of British forces landing on the Falkland Island were very close to impossible. An exceptional coordination had to be preserved, during the attack, between the three British forces to win the war.

It is quite obvious from modern warfare history that the wars are mainly fought in Air and the quality and performance of air force of two rival countries can make a difference in winning and losing. However it has to be coordinated with the troops on the ground to capture the land. As the Falkland war was over an Island it required a huge involvement of the Naval forces to launch an amphibious assault to carry and land the troops on the disputed territory once the jets from the Air force and the Navy paved out the path and did considerable damage to the ground installation.

Stanley was the capital of the Falkland Islands and on May 1 the Royal air force launched operations Black Buck. The target was enemy radars. Once that operation was effectively executed it was going to take away the eyes of the enemy gazing towards the sky by destroying an important radar installation and establishing the domination of the Royal Air force on the Falkland skies making it extremely difficult for the enemy to survive against heavy British raids.

One most important factor that was of great value in the joint operation was the timing. When the counter invasion was initiated till its end, the time was to play a central role. When the dispatch of the Royal navy was executed it was well understood by lead British commanders. At the same time the air combat had to be tightly coordinated with the amphibious attack. At the same time the Royal Navy had to place its ship at a safe distance from the enemy aircrafts and at the same time the vessels had to be closely guarded. This was an upmost crucial effort that required a precisely coordinated timing.

Another factor that was highly effective in the outcome of the war was deployment of the troops and resources. The southern Argentinean boarder was heavily defended against Chile because of a dispute over another group of Islands. Therefore they could not risk sending their highly trained troops. On the contrary the troops that were on board the Royal navy ships inclusively amphibians and paratroopers were highly trained that were participating in the war. All these men working in synchronization belonging to all the three forces Army, Navy and the Air force facilitated the outcome of the joint operation even if they were some communicational discrepancies that were later reported. Many critics of the war believed that if the Argentinean forces were able to establish a full fledge base preferably on Port Stanley it could have been one of the key factors for the Argentina to do significant damage to the British fleets. The Argentine pilots were top ranked in the South America and the Air force was also well equipped and well balanced. They were quite capable of defeating the UK with a well planned and coordinated effort in conjunction with all the forces jointly but this did not happen. The reason was being that they were not able to properly allocate their troops and military resources.

As these air battles were taking place there was another confrontation taking place in the sea. Belgrade, a massive Argentinean ship was sunk by a British submarine firing a World War II torpedo. Once the British commanders had made sure that the Operations in the Air and Seas near the disputed group of Islands had cashed in enough success, they will launch the amphibious attack to eradicate and evict the remnant soldiers of the Argentinean army.

 This strategy was the main reason that allowed great measures to be taken to facilitate coordination between the three forces to have an effective outcome of this joint operation.  

To many experts and historic analysts this war was useless. One prominent Argentinean writer stated about the Falkland War between Great Britain and Argentina as Two bald men fighting over a comb... This means that the group of Islands both of the countries were fighting for had little or no value for them.
However the Falkland Islands or the Malvinas as Argentineans call it remain a bone of contention in between the two countries up till this day. The Argentineans still claim that Malvinas belong to them without a speck of doubt. This claim is a part of their constitution. At various places in Argentina monuments have been erected in the memory of those who died in this war.

 It is said that a Lion is a dangerous animal but when it becomes bloody injured it becomes even more dangerous. The Argentineans are still obsessed with these islands and this South American country is still a great threat to the British presence on the Falkland Islands. The post war compensation did allow the British budget to fit in the necessary requirements for the defence of this territory. The national differences and socio-political opposition can create a friction that may lead to another war.

 The Malvinas or the Falkland Islands in inhabited by almost 3000 of UKs citizen. The British government has invested quite a lot in the economical growth improving the standard of living of the people dwelling in Falkland Islands.

The two armies were well equipped and had equal resource capability when they confronted each other. If the statistics of this war is studied with respect to different battles that took place or from an overall perspective of the war we see that the casualties of Argentinean soldiers are consistently more than the casualties of the soldiers of UK.

The reason for this can be justified by this hypothesis that the troops of UK were well trained and well equipped and the planning was outstanding in most of the battles. This is all but partially true. The forces belonging to both sided were considered to be equal from many different points of view but this was not the case. This fact is well known that Argentina had to take care of Chile on another group of Islands and could not afford the risk of leaving that southern border undefended. It was well known that the soldiers deployed on the southern side of Argentina were well equipped, well trained and highly professional. If those soldiers had been appointed the situation could have been very different. Even than it has been claimed by many war analysts that Britain had a narrow escape in the operations of the war and if the war had persisted for more than two weeks the outcome of the war could have been drastically different. Lord Craig, claimed that Six better fuses and we would have lost. He pointed to the technical failure that the Argentinean Air Force was facing due to a technical disability of the fuses fitted in the missiles which made them retarded in terms of effective explosion. Many missiles did not go off due to bad fusses. This problem was fixed later on during the war but its better to say that lightening does not strike at the same place twice.

UK developed a VTOL Harrier after the war in the South Atlantic was over. This was also a result of post war efforts which only occurred as a result and spotting the weaknesses after analysis and plugging the loop holes in the British war machine. This war also paved the way for Britain to focus on the fifth pillar of its military policy called the out-of area policy as the need was there. The requirements of NATO and the out-of-area could also be fulfilled due to studies and experience that was gained understood in the after maths of the Falkland war.

The fall of France and the evacuation of Dunkirk assured Hitler of the surrender of Britain. However, newly incumbent Prime Minister Winston Churchill and majority of his Cabinet refused the idea of negotiations. Churchill instead opted to rally the public for a long war.

With defiance of the British, Hitler then planned an invasion of Britain. This was rather difficult as the German Navy suffered heavy losses during the Norwegian campaign. The British Navy still had a significant number of destroyers, cruisers and carriers still on operation. Thus, Hitler turned to the Luftwaffe to bomb key structures and sink Britains naval fleet. The German Navy would then land on the shores to complete the invasion. This plan was code named Operation Sealion and it launch day was called Aldertag.

Operation Sealion was still a risky endeavor. It would require the complete control of the air by the Germans so as to prevent tanks infantry from being strafed and bombed. The German High Command agreed with the idea but Grossadmiral Donitz thought the plan was a disaster waiting to happen. He argued that the neither the Luftwaffe nor the German Navy could take control or even gain control of the air or sea respectively. Despite the misgivings, the operation pushed through.

The British Royal Air Force had the Hurricane and the new Spitfire at its disposal, each one with its own strengths and weaknesses. Both aircraft had similar manueverability but the Spitfire suffered from stalling when performing tight turns. The Spitfire, however, was faster than the Hurricane partly due to its reduced weight and size. The reduced size also helped the Spitfire in dodging enemy fire. The two RAF aircraft were armed with eight .303 Browning machine guns in the wings which were configured in such a way that the bullets would converge at a distance. The machine guns had a high rate of fire and discharged a large number of bullets even with a short burst. However, the small caliber bullets had trouble penetrating the armor plating of most Luftwaffe aircraft. Though similarly armored, the Spitfire had lower serviceability rate than the Hurricane due to the formers complexity. The 100 octane boosted the performance of the Merlin engines, substantially improving climb rate. However, this fuel shortened the life the Merlin from 100 hours to 20. Moreover, the Merlin would suddenly cut out when performing negative g manuevers preventing the Hurricane and Spitfire from disengaging at will.

The Luftwaffe on the other hand had the Bf 109. The 109 had similar speed and turning as the Spitfire but without experiencing stall when performing tught turns. The roll rate of the Bf 109 was also higher than both RAF fighters, having very responsive controls. These however diminished as the 109 reached higher speeds. Bf-109E-1s were armed with four MG 17 7.92 mm machine guns, two above the engine and another two at the wings. The E-3, E-4 and E-7s were fitted with MG FFM 20 mm cannons at the wings instead. Though having significantly stronger firepower, the cannons low rate of fire had a lower effectiveness in air-to-air skirmishes. By 1940, Germans developed a synthetic fuel named C-2 which increased engine power by 20.

For bombing runs, the Luftwaffe utilized the Do 17, He 111 and Ju 88. These three bombers had relatively thick armor plating protecting the crew and self-sealing rubber covering the fuel tanks. However, MG 15 light machine guns equipped on these aircrafts could not deal sufficient damage to deter or stop attacks by Spitfires or Hurricanes. The German gunners were suffiently trained at shooting down fast-moving targets but the small caliber bullets the MG 15 fired were too weak to deal significant damage to enemy fighters. Do 17 and He 111 were easy prey for the Spitfires as the two bombers had low manueverability and speed even with empty loads. Ju 88 was more manueverable and faster and thus received lower losses. The He 111 delivered the highest bomb payload at 2000 kg followed by the Ju 88 at 1400 kg and the Do 17 with a slightly lighter 1000 kg payload.

The German strategy was to destroy RAF Fighter Command either on the ground or in the air. The British aircraft industry and other military installations should be crippled by bombing runs. Coastal airfields were to be eliminated first, moving in-land with long-range fighters to eliminate airbases there. Kill ratios over RAF fighters should be high and so that the Luftwaffe could support the amphibious invasion in the later part of the operation. Fighter escort and bomber tactics were diverse each applicable to however the enemy chooses to act. Though very effective, the tactics were only adopted at the later part of the battle and thus resulted to heavy bomber losses. Furthermore, the 109s did not have the ability to travel as far as the bombers they escorted often leaving bomber squadrons undefended.

The British strategy was to use a complex system of detection, command and control know as the Dowding system. Radar facilities were placed near the coasts to detect incoming enemy squadrons. The RAF then divided their fighters into four groups, each with its own clearly-defined sector to defend. The RAF fighters would then engage the enemy bomber squadrons with small numbers with the intent of lowering casualties on their side while forcing the enemy to break out of formation. Once achieved, the bombers were downed by Hurricanes and the Spitfire dispatched the fighter escorts.

The German Navy, though greatly weakened, still had enough forces to aid in the Battle of Britain. On September 20, 1940, U-100 successfully sunk 12 supply ships in the North Atlantic, possibly due to the concentration of air power to defend Britain from the daytime bombing raids instead of escorting supply ships.

Renaissance as a term can be defined as cultural movement which took place between the fourteenth and the seventeenth century. It is believed to have begun in Italy and spread throughout Europe. This period was greatly characterized by individual achievements in a variety of fields. Early scholars in the field of humanity, such as Francesco Petrarch involved themselves with studying works that had been done by Romans as well as the Greeks in the ancient days. They combined Platos philosophy together with other ancient schools of thought and the rich Roman Catholic teachings. These humanists were responsible for the taking of literature and art to the higher levels they reached.

Renaissance begun in great Italian cities, key among them being Florence, Venice, Milan, and Papal states. During this period, Italian political leaders and merchants gave their full support to artists. This made Italy enjoy the products which resulted from renaissance. Each of these cities was distinct in terms of character during this period. This was largely dependent on the ruler in each of these cities. The most notable among these cities is Florence, the place where renaissance is believed to have originated from. Florence set out its niche as a wood-trading post. It was able to retain this status for a very long time this was largely credited to the strong and stable leadership of Medici family. Medici family set as a priority the maintenance of financial stability in the city. They were also very intelligent and ensured that art flourished during that period. During this period, pope who is charged with the leadership of the Catholic Church was also the head of Rome. With the developments that were taking place in Italian cities, the pope became very powerful and assumed the role of a politician at an international as opposed to the spiritual leader he was supposed to be. The other cities also flourished and became very wealthy as well as powerful in the process. They attracted many great artists and merchants.

Italian renaissance was greatly affected by the invasion of Italy by French soldiers. These foreigners vied for the Italian peninsula pieces. Renaissance ended during the rule of a Roman Emperor, Charles V. This emperor had placed very stringent financial restrictions. The Catholic Church was under strong censorship at the time. All these culminated in the crumbling of renaissance. With it went artistic, intellectual as well as economic prosperity of these cities and Italy in general.

Renaissance as a period of cultural movement was characterized by the development of a variety of aspects. The most notable aspects that were advanced and indeed taken to another level were music, philosophy, science, architecture, literature, poetry, sculpture as well as painting. The main purpose of this paper is to explore the development that took place in the field of art and more specifically painting. During this period artists were accorded great respect as talented people of the land and not just as craftsmen as they had been considered for a very long time. They were very famous. Artists expressed their view on nature and humankind by exploring different mediums. Artists were hired by very great people at that time.

One great distinction in art during the period of renaissance was the development of linear perspective that was more realistic. Perspective development was one of the ways that were being employed to achieve realism in the field of art. Painters also ventured into new techniques, studied light and shadow and human anatomy as was the case with Leonardo da Vinci. Art was preferred because of its aesthetic value and was employed as a means of portraying natural beauty. Renaissance greatly influenced art, especially when we consider composition, the perspective as well as the subject matter. Many new artistic styles were also developed during this period.

Painting
Painters during the renaissance period were loyal to certain jurisdictions and had diplomatic stature in such cities. They were also credited with the dissemination of philosophical ideas. Florence remains as the place where renaissance painting was born. Renaissance painting in Italy can be broadly divided into four main periods. These are Proto-Renaissance, Early Renaissance, High Renaissance, and Mannerism. Proto-renaissance is characterized by the life of Giotto di Bondone and goes ahead to include Taddeo Gaddi, painter Orcagna and Altichiero. Early renaissance was credited with people like Ucello, Verrocchio, painter Fra Angelico Masaccio. Piero Della Francesca is also a notable figure during early renaissance. High renaissance was crowned by Pontormo, painter Tintoretto and Andrea Sarto. Mannerism refers to a time of art in Europe and it took place after high renaissance in Italy.

Proto-Renaissance
Art in Tuscany in the thirteenth century was dictated by two people who had mastered the style of Byzantine. These people were Duccio who was from Siena and Cimabue, who originated from Florence. These painters appeared to have specialized in religious paintings. These painters together with their contemporaries who included Coppo di Marcovaldo and Guido from Siena, not excluding an anonymous painter who referred to himself as the Master of St. Bernardino, followed a formal manner of painting. Their style borrowed a lot from icon painting which had anciently been the tradition. Their paintings were fixed to the subject matter. These painters directed their paintings towards naturalism.

Giotto who was a shepherd hailed from Florence. He became an apprentice to Cimabue and distinguished himself as an outstanding artist during his time. Giotto was greatly inspired by the works of Pietro Cavallini who was a Roman. His work was distinct from the rest since his paintings were not based on painterly traditions but instead he relied on his own observation of nature and life. He did not rely much on the Byzantine style. His figures were three dimensional and appeared to be standing squarely on the surface or ground. Another feature of his figures is that they had discernible anatomy. They were also clothed with garments that had weight and a recognizable structure. The key feature that distinguished figure by Giotto from the others was the fact that his figures had emotions. He initiated what came to be known as narrative pictures. He painted Orgnissanti Madonna which is preserved at Uffizi Gallery along with Santa Trinita Madonna by Cimabue and Ruccellai Madonna by Duccio. Giotto had a keen eye on the naturalistic perspective of his paintings.

The contemporaries of Giotto, those who had been influenced by his work adopted his trends. His students always seemed to lay some emphasis on the naturalistic perspective of their paintings. His students excelled in painting that none of them rose to his caliber. Taddeo Gaddi is credited with having produced a large painting depicting night scene, a first of its kind. This painting was at Baroncelli chapel and was named Annunciation to the Shepherds.

The theme of last judgment was a characteristic of medieval churches. It was painted on the door and wall towards the west. The survivors of the Black Death that occurred in 1348 focused on approaching death in absolution. They portrayed the fact that death cannot be avoided and they also depicted the punishment that was awaiting sinners. In these pictures they tried to imagine the kind of suffering that was in hell, and as such their paintings were full of grim. Key among these paintings was triumph of Death which was the work of Orcagna, who had been a student of Giotto. Orcagna, Francesco Traini and Buonamico Buffalmacco were noted to have had profound interest on salvation as the subject matter in their paintings. Giusto de Menabuoi together with Altichiero were among the most renown fresco painters in Padua as the fourteenth century neared its end. Giusto is credited with the work he did at Cathedrals Baptistery, where he made decorations that depicted a theme about the creation of humanity, their downfall and subsequent salvation. His work was of a very high quality but he was not able to bring out emotions clearly.

In Florence, Andrea Bonaiuti in his fresco Allegory of the Active and Triumphant Church, tried to depict the function the church plays in the course of the redemption process. Towards the end of the fourteenth century, International Gothic had come out as the style that employed in Tuscan paintings. This style can be recognized in the paintings of Ambrogio Lorenzetti alongside Pietro. These painters formalized their figures with grace as well as sweetness. Simone Martini together with Gentile da Fabriano mastered this art and their works were very rich in detail and were also elegant. At the onset of the fifteenth century, Fra Angelico is very notable as he ushered in Renaissance and exiting the style of International Gothic.

Early Renaissance painting
In 1401 at Florence, Quattrocento -an art on bronze doors at St. Johns Baptistery. To come up with this artistic masterpiece, artists were drawn up to a competition and Ghiberti did not disappoint as one of the most talented artists of his time. He thus won a tender to cast his artistic impression on the Baptistery doors. This was no easy task as he managed to complete the initial set of doors after a 27 year period. It is after this instance that he was assigned the duty of finishing the remaining set. This was a job that took him more than 50 years to complete. Linear perspective was a concept that seemed to be in application during the designing of these doors. This masterpiece came to be a credit to the city and their artists were also much respected.

In 1426, fresco paintings were initiated at the Brancacci Chapel by Masaccio alongside Masolino. Masaccio appeared to have borrowed a lot from the works of Giotto and as such incorporated naturalism in his paintings. He demonstrated that he understood anatomy, linear perspective, light, foreshortening as well as drapery. One of his notable paintings was the depiction of the time when Adam and his wife Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden. This masterpiece was realistic and appeared to have taken into consideration the emotion. Masaccio was not able to complete his work at the Chapel because of his sudden demise at the tender age of 26. Filippino Lippi took over to complete what he had left undone. Though he died at a very young age, the aspects that he had employed in his artistic work came to be very helpful to some of the great artists in the order of Michelangelo alongside Leonardo da Vinci.

In the course of the fifteenth century, artists had already set their minds on the subject of linear perspective. Certain architects like Brunelleschi alongside Alberti had come with theories about this concept. Brunelleschi is said to have taken a closer look at the piazza and also assisted Masaccio when he was creating trompe loeil niche. Paolo Uccelo was one of the artists who was obsessed with the idea of linear perspective that in his painting three Battle of San Romano, he incorporated weapons on the ground that are broken and also try to focus on distant hill to bring out this aspect. In The Flagellation of Christ, that was done in 1450, Piero della Fransesca demonstrated the fact that he had mastered the concept of linear perspective and was also able to clearly bring out light as an artistic aspect. A regular user of the concept of linear perspective in his work was Perugin and this can be noted in most of his works.

Giotto employed tonality in his attempt to exhibit form. Taddeo Gaddi, when he did his work on nocturnal scene was attempting to demonstrate how light could be used to bring out drama. Paolo Ucello later performed a series of experiments to show how light could be used to bring out a dramatic effect. This he did using his near monochrome frescoes. Piero Della Fransesca continued to study the artistic property of light. In his work Flagellatio, he demonstrates the manner in which the dissemination of light occurs from its source of origin. In the course of this work, he managed to show two sources of light in his painting with the first being internal while the other an external source. When we consider the internal source of light in his painting, we realize that the light cannot be seen but it can be calculated at least with arithmetic confidence. The concept of light in art was to be later studied by Leonardo da Vinci.

Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus was greatly honored by Catholics. Her image was said to have appeared in a miraculous manner in corn market, but this was not to last long as it was destroyed in a fire incident. Bernardo Daddi later came up with an alternative image in 1330.  Paintings of Madonna and Child became a common form of art in Florence. Some of the painters who came to be renowned for producing Madonnas that were to be used for prayers included Davide Ghirlandaio, Fra Angelico together with Fra Filippo.  Verrocchio also came to be associated with such kind of mass productions. Botticelli is credited for creating the Madonnas for Medici. Madonnas made by Perugino were particularly sweet and different from the others. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael are some of the other notable painters who involved themselves with the production of Madonnas.

High Renaissance 
As far as Florence was concerned, art was considered as a profession and the artists were paid by some private patrons.  The better part of patronage was accorded by Medici family and some of their close allies like Tornabuoni, Rucellai and not excluding Sasseti. In 1946, Marsilio Ficino was hired as a human philosopher to a member of the Medici family. He was supposed to help him in the translation of the philosophy of Plato. During the renaissance period, ancient information was considered as enlightenment. Ghirlandaio continued with the painting of frescoes in Florence, notably at Sassetti Chapel and Tornabuoni Chapel. He proved to be an outstanding artist of his time.

During this period, there was an influence from Netherlands brought about by the arrival of a Flemish painter in Italy. Rogier Weyden is credited with teaching Italian artists on using oil paints. Tempera together with fresco depicted pattern but they were not able to depict natural texture in a realistic way. The Adoration of the Shepherds was imported to Florence in 1475. This was a masterpiece of Hugo Goes. This was done following the request which had been made by Portinari family. This masterpiece of artistic work challenged Ghirlandaio to come up with his own painting by borrowing some important aspects of this painting. Pope Sixtus IV chose artists from Florence in 1479 to paint frescoes at Vatican depicting lives of Jesus and Moses. The recipients of this job were Cosimo, Boticelli, Ghirlandaio and Perugino. They did an excellent work though some of the paintings were later destroyed. Of all these paintings, those that had been done by Perugino proved to be outstanding. This was largely due to the fact that they were clear, simple in composition, and equally beautiful.

Leonardo da Vinci came to be given the name Renaissance man. This was largely due to the fact that he had interest and was a man who was extraordinarily talented. He stood out as an icon in painting during his times. He was keen in understanding human anatomy and in more than thirty occasions he was accused of dissected cadavers to understand the connection of muscles. He depicted atmosphere in most of his works. Some of his most notable works were Mona Lisa as well as Virgin of the Rocks. He employed the use of light in combination with shades to achieve an artistic impression. He managed to add realism in the expression of human emotion. Last Supper which is one of his many works set a new way in which religious paintings were made. Leonardo taught his students how he managed to achieve emotions in his paintings and as such information was passed down.

Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II to beautify Sistine Chapel in 1508. He was not willing but decided to do it just because the Pope wielded so much power at that time. He was a sculptor and he managed to come up with methods that were very complex. The work took him in excess of five years but it was marvelous since he was working alone. Michelangelo was very creative in his work. The works of Raphael marked the peak of High Renaissance. His father was a painter. Raphael combined all the aspects of art that had been used by painters before him and during his time and as such his works were a summary of what artists had achieved over time.

Mannerism is not necessarily within the scope of this document as it refers to renaissance in Europe and not necessarily Italy. Advances in Mathematics helped in the advancement of Renaissance art. Michelangelo did a lot in the way of exemplifying sculpting to express emotions. He used a chisel in his work He was among the people who set trends during the renaissance period. Renaissance was a great period for the development of art, especially that of painting. The renaissance that begun in Italy later spread to many countries in Europe. This is also the era that is associated with many paintings which have been conserved to date. The aspects of artistic impressions that were developed during this period are the same that are still being used today only that they have since been modified by advancement in technology.