The Battle of Iwo Jima
The American invasion was supported by enormous naval and air bombardment. The American flotilla was composed of battleships, newly commissioned aircraft carriers, battle cruisers, and hundreds of support ships. On the first day of the battle, the Americans bombarded Japanese positions on the island. The US Marines launched preemptive attacks on shore defenses. For more than a month, the battle raged tenaciously. Thousands of US Marines and Japanese soldiers perished in the island.
Background
On October 20, 1944, an American invasion force landed in Leyte, Philippines. The objective of the invasion was to cut off Japan from its resource bases in Southeast Asia. The Japanese Navy reacted quickly by sending its heavy battleships and aircraft carriers to destroy the invasion force. The Japanese force was divided into three forces. The first force was under the command of Admiral Ozawa. It was composed of Japans remaining aircraft carriers. Its objective was to lure the main American naval force away from Leyte. Admiral Kurita commanded the main Japanese force. The center force consisted of five battleships, a dozen heavy cruisers, and seventeen destroyers. Its objective was to cross the San Bernardino Strait and destroy the unprotected American invasion force. The southern force was under the command of Admiral Nishimura. It consisted of two battleships, one heavy cruiser, and four destroyers. Its objective was to destroy the American invasion force from the South.
The American force guarding the San Bernardino Strait spotted Ozawas force. Admiral Halsey, commander of the US 3rd fleet, decided to pursue Ozawas force. Admiral Kurita seized the opportunity and ordered the main Japanese force to head for Leyte. Meanwhile, the Southern force headed for the Surigao Strait. In response to the impending Japanese attack, the Americans organized a small force of fast battleships and surface raiders. The American force repeatedly attacked the main Japanese force. The attacks were so intense that Kurita decided to withdraw. Meanwhile, Ozawas force made its last stand at Cape Engao. The Southern force also suffered the same fate. Only one of its two battleships survived the American onslaught.
The Japanese Navy suffered its greatest loss in the Battle of Leyte. Its failure to destroy the American invasion force from Leyte meant the loss of the Philippine islands. This also meant that Japan would be completely cut-off from its occupied territories in the south. Many of these territories provided Japan with invaluable resources necessary for the continued prosecution of the war. This also opened Japan for an invasion. Indeed, from a military perspective, Japans fate was sealed.
Japanese Strategy
The Japanese High Command assigned Lt. General Kuribayashi to defend the island of Iwo Jima. Breaking established military doctrine, Kuribayashi established strong, mutually supporting defensive lines within the island. The objective of such defense was to inflict heavy casualties on the Americans and delayed an American invasion of the mainland. Tanks were deployed in camouflaged positions.
Due to the expected heavy American bombardment, Mount Suribachi was organized as the main initial defense. A system of tunnels connected the mountain to the surrounding defenses. Bunkers and pillboxes were irregularly established throughout the island. Sniper positions were initially scarce. But after the landing of US marines, the number of sniper positions tripled.
General Kuribayashi was pessimistic of the outcome of the impending battle. He wrote to his wife
I may not return alive from this assignment, but let me assure you that I shall fight to the best of my ability, so that no disgrace will be brought upon our family. I shall fight as a son of Kuribayashi, the Samurai, and will behave in such a manner as to deserve the name of Kuribayashi. May ancestors guide me.
General Kuribayashi was a high-spirited military commander, born to serve in the Imperial Army. Newcomb and Schmidt provided an account of General Kuribayashi
In the service of thirty years, Kuribayashi served all over the world. In 1928, as a thirty-seven-year-old captain, he went to Washington as deputy military attach and for two years traveled throughout the country. He was intelligent and rational, much to the surprise of most American military officials. In his letter to the Japanese High Command, he wrote The United States is the last country in the world that Japan should fight. Its industrial potentiality is huge and fabulous, and indeed, its resources far outweigh any nation on the planet.
For Kuribayashi, the only way Japan could win a war against the United States is through surprise attack. A war of attrition would only worsen Japans situation. However, with no choice left, he had to follow the directives of the Japanese High Command.
American Strategy
American strategy was relatively straightforward. The 4th and 5th Marine Divisions were assigned to land on the southern end of the island and secure Mount Suribachi. The 3rd Marine Division would advance from the north and push Japanese forces inward. Prior to the invasion, B-24 bombers would bombard the island from the Marianas.
The US Marines requested a ten-day bombardment of the island but the navy refused the request arguing that it had to conserve ammunition for the eventual invasion of Okinawa, Japan. About a dozen capital ships bombarded Japanese positions from the sea. Two days prior to the impending American invasion, Japanese batteries opened fire on US gunboats. A US destroyer was hit killing 50 men. The counter bombardment exposed Japanese positions in the island. Regardless of the outcome of the heavy bombardment, the American invasion force was schedule to arrive on February 19, 1945.
The Americans studied previous battles in order to probe the effectiveness of any predetermined attack. As Haynes and Warren argued
The Corps studied the Gallipoli campaign closely and reached a different conclusion. The assault there cost the lives of more than 40 000 allied troops. It failed not because the Turks were better fighters than the British, Australians, and New Zealanders, but for lack of proper amphibious doctrine and equipment. Particularly glaring problems concerned the absence of specially designed landing craft and adequate supporting fire from ships and aircraft.
In response to the glaring difficulties of the impending invasion, the marines made adequate preparations for the attack. As Haynes and Warren correctly observed
Personal weapons and communications equipment and procedures had improved over those used in the earlier battles, such as Guadalcanal and Tarawa. So, too, the organization and tactics of tankers, demolition teams, and infantrymen had been revised and integrated in the light of earlier combat experience. By the time the 28th Marines were forming up, extraordinary progress had been made in coordinating the movement of troops ashore with supporting air and naval gunfire. By this time, it was widely recognized that large-caliber naval guns had to be used to knock out the largest enemy installations in advance of the landing and that such naval gunfire had to be accurate if the operation was to succeed without drastically high casualties.
Before the Invasion
On the 24th of February 1945, a large American invasion force sailed for Iwo Jima from American-controlled islands in the Pacific. On February 16, Japanese troops saw the American warships preparing to bombard the island. American aircraft carriers launched sorties to dislodge Japanese positions in the island. The US Navy planted underwater mines and explosives to prevent the remnants of the Japanese Navy from supporting the beleaguered Japanese forces. The marines installed large nets along the sides of the ships.
The American capital ships began to shell the island. The bombardment was so intense that observers argued that it was impossible for a single Japanese soldier to survive the onslaught.
The American Invasion
On the 19th of February 1945, the American battleships USS North Carolina, USS West Virginia, and USS Washington signaled the beginning of the American invasion of Iwo Jima. Hundreds of B-24 bombers attacked the island. The bombardment failed to destroy the Japanese defenses. Many of the Japanese defenses were heavily fortified and well-protected from bombardment. A significant number of Japanese troops were sheltered on Mount Suribachi. Japanese artillery was supported by massive fortifications inside the mountain.
Six hours after the commencement of the invasion, thirty thousand marines landed on the beach. The Japanese did not open fire. General Kuribayashi ordered his troops to hold fire until the beach was massing of marines and heavy equipment. American patrols began to move inland to search for hidden Japanese fortifications.
After the marines reached the first Japanese line of defense, the Japanese opened fire killing hundreds of marines. To the surprise of the Americans, the Japanese suddenly rose from the ground and opened fire on the advancing force. Advancing inland was extremely difficult since the ground consisted of soft volcanic ash. Japanese artillery easily destroyed American formations north and south of the mountain. Japanese artillery stationed in the mountain opened fire on the American flotilla. The Navy responded by pounding the island with heavy bombardment.
After the marines cleared the bunkers located on the beaches, they advanced inland. However, because the bunkers were connected by a system of tunnels, many of the deactivated bunkers became hostile again. The Army decided to bring in armored units to prevent sustain bombardment on the beaches. The marines were then able to advance inland and cut the mountain from the rest of the island.
At night, the Japanese launched surprise attacks against American positions in the island. The objective of these suicidal attacks was to stall the Americans from advancing inland. General Kuribayashi prohibited the use of such tactic because of its utility. At day, the marines were ambushed by Japanese soldiers stationed in temporary bunkers. Japanese artillery incessantly bombed American forces advancing inland.
The Americans soon learned that their firearms were ineffective against Japanese positions. The Army Command commissioned the use of grenades and frame throwers to destroy Japanese positions. The Sherman tank proved effective at disabling hidden Japanese fortifications.
On March 6, 1945, escort carriers arrived in the island. These ships provided the troops with invaluable air support and communication. On the same day, the marines began to establish artillery positions in the island to neutralize the main Japanese defense at Suribachi. After the third wave of marines secured the landing area, troops and heavy equipment massed along the beaches.
The Japanese were running out of basic provisions. General Kuribayashi informed the Japanese High command that defeat was imminent. He was unable to prevent his troops from launching suicide attacks against the marines.
The Flag
On the 23rd of February 1945, five US marines and a US Navy personnel raised the American flag on the top of Mount Suribachi. Joe Rosenthal took the photograph and presented it to the American public. The photograph became a historic symbol of war and liberty. On the same day, Suribachi was completely cut-off from the main Japanese force. At this point in time, the marines knew that the Japanese had a massive network of tunnels and hidden fortifications.
North of the Island
The loss of Suribachi was not the end of the battle. The Japanese still held impenetrable positions north of the mountain. The fortifications constructed at the northern end of the island were highly sophisticated. The remaining force consisted of one infantry division, a tank regiment, and several mortar battalions. The marines were tasked to capture the Motoyama Plateau and the surroundings hills, codenamed Hill 382 and Hill 362. The main objective though was to capture the second Japanese airfield.
The marines were caught up with the Japanese defenses. Marines were gunned down despite heavy naval bombardment. Few Japanese soldiers were captured. Despite the heavy Japanese defense, the marines were able to break the initial Japanese defense. General Erskine, the commander of the 9th Marine division, ordered a surprise attack. Japanese soldiers were still sleep when the marines attacked. The Japanese launched a general counterattack. The counterattacked failed miserably, allowing the Americans to capture Hill 362.
Captain Inouye of the 5th Japanese battalion launched a suicide attack with the objective of recapturing Mount Suribachi. The marines inflicted heavy casualties on the charging Japanese. Out of 1000 Japanese soldiers, 780 died.
The American Victory
On the 16th of March, 1945, the island was declared militarily secured. The island though was far from safe. General Kuribayashi still held strong positions at the northwestern end of the island. On March 21, the marines launched a powerful attack and destroyed Kuribayashis command post. Finally, on March 25, the Japanese launched a final counterattack near Airfield No.2 with the goal of breaking the main American force. More than half of the attacking force was either killed or wounded. The charge was the final act of sacrifice on the part of the Japanese soldiers to defend the homeland from invasion.
The marines began to establish military installations throughout the island in preparation for the impending assault of the Japanese mainland. Airfields were constructed to support air units from the Marianas (especially the Flying Fortresses). Naval units constantly guard the island for an expected Japanese counter invasion (which was very unlikely considering the conditions of the Japanese Army).
The Aftermath
Top American military officials downgraded the worth of the Iwo Jima campaign. General Jones, for example, argued that the campaign was unnecessary because the United States could simply bypass the island straight toward the mainland. The island proved impractical because the flying fortresses could simply head toward the mainland from the Marianas.
In reality, the lessons learned from the Iwo Jima campaign served as operational guidelines for succeeding battles.
Conclusion
The battle of Iwo Jima was the culminating battle of the Second World War. The Japanese Army had lost the initiative of defending the mainland from an American invasion by allowing the Americans to seize a foothold on Japanese soil. The Americans, on the other hand, was able to establish a base for an eventual attack on the mainland.
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