West European Studies

1. In what ways might the early-medieval empires of the Carolingians, Abbasids, and Byzantines be seen as a break with the civilization of the Mediterranean in Roman and immediate post-Roman times
This is dependent on the geographic areas where they were situated.  The Carolingians were concerntrated in what is now Franced and Germany.  In their case, their culture was primarily Germanic in nature.  Snce they embraced Christianity, they had the support of the nascent Christian church as well which encouraged the, to grow. The Abbasids came to power in Persia and were able to wrest control from the Greek rulers.  Islam helped make them distinct.  The Byzantines saw themselves as the continuation of the Roman Empire as the west appeared to be declining and decided to establish themselves a new capital instead of taking over Rome.

2. Describe the main steps in the gradual split between eastern and western Christendom from the fourth to the eleventh century  What were the main issues dividing Byzantium from Europe by the end of this development
This was primarily due to the irrconcilable differences of theology and practice of the two churches.  The eastern church used Greek while the west stuck with Latin the west is centralized under the Popes authority while the eastern churches are localized with patriarchs in each local jurisdiction and are subordinate to the (Byzantine) emperor.  It was these differences that caused the two churches to split in 1054.

3. Why might we consider Basil II a strong and successful ruler  How did his reign lay the foundations for later problems in the Byzantine Empire
Basil II was able to bring stability to the empire and he managed to expand its eastern frontier.  Internally, he managed to defeat the rebellious leaders, further consoldiating his power. The foundatons he laid would later bring problems to later rulers as they would eventually want to break away.
The Crusades

4. What was a  crusade  
A crusade means any action or campaign taken with a cause.  In this case, these were military expeditions launched by Europe to free the Hold Land from Muslim occupation.

5. How can we understand the Crusades as a result of the breakdown of this early-medieval world order of Carolingians, Abbasids, and Byzantines
The Crusades came at the time when there was a break down of medieval civilization as former Roman territories became autonomous and these rulers see rivals as a threat and they end up fighting one another.  The Byzantines in particular did not care much of what went on in the west and minded their own business.

6. Why was Crusading appealing to people in the West by the later eleventh century  How did it help solve the problem of aristocratic violence plaguing Europe since the later ninth century
The Crusades gave the west a measure of peace after years of fighting one another.  What it essentially did was give the westerners another enemy to fight with the purpose of bringing them together.

7. How did Crusading involve a reconsideration of the nature of violence in the West
The understanding of violence differed.  This was because the westerners were given a mission by the Church and this gave a some sense of purpose in the violence they would inflict.  They felt empowered by God and they would practically justify their actions as such and the Jews and Muslims were the unfortunate victims.

8. What were the consequences of the First Crusade
The First Crusade did free the Holy Land and led to the creation of  Crusader Kingdoms  which were extensions of kingdoms of the lords in Europe. Strategically, it eased the pressure of Seljuk attacks on the Byzantine Empire as well.

9. How do rifts between Muslim groups in the Eastern Mediterranean region help us understand the success of the First Cruade  How do divisions among Christians in the region give insight into the failures of subsequent Crusades
The Arab tribes were not in good terms with the Seljuk Turks who were the actual reason why the Crusades were launched. Despite the earlier success the each Crusade, it was apparent that the disunity and mistrust the leaders had towards one another would show once they had no Muslim enemy to fight.  It can be inferred here that their alliance was temporary and they still had their vested interests to look out for.

10. Why might the Fourth Crusade and the crusade of Frederick II be considered  ironic successes  
Militarily, the Fourth Crusade was a success.  But the political ramifications of their act would cause long-term problems as they lost a key strategic ally among the Byzantines, thus widening the gap between the east and western churches as well. In the case of Frederick II, it was similar but when he launched his crusade, he did it without papal  authorization  or support.
Medieval Spain Convivencia and Reconquista

11. In what ways can we compare the relations between Christians and Muslims in medieval Spain to interfaith relations in the Crusader States
Prior to the reconquista, Christians, Jews and Muslims live in a period called  convivencia  or coexistence.  What this implied was they were living harmoniously together, contrary to the belief that they were eternal enemies.  The Crusader states did not help much in interfaith relations as their primary goal was to protect Christian pilgrims.  Muslims and even Jews were regarded as the enemy.

12. How was medieval Spain a society characterized by  convivencia   What were the limits of tolerance and coexistence
Beneath that peaceful coexistence lay antagonism as Christians were harboring animosities towards the Muslims.  The extent of this peaceful coexistence went as far as cultural exchanges which ironically helped enrich Spanish culture as seen in cities such as Granada and Toledo.

13. Describe how  intra-faith  (i.e., within the Muslim and Christian sides respectively) played a role in the Spanish  Reconquista
The inter-faith relations between Christians and Muslims in Spain proved to be complex that it would be hard to determine how it caused the reconquista in the midst of convivencia.  The Reconquista was more of repopulating the rest of Spain with Christians as tensions with the Muslims increased though some Christian rulers did have Muslim allies who were instrumental in the Reconquista.
The Rise of Monarchical Power

14. What are the major powers of kings in the High Middle Ages (ca. 1050-1300)  How do these kings compare with earlier examples we have seen of kings
Majority of these kings ruled absolutely, deriving their power mainly by Divine Right where they derive their legitimacy to rule from God.

15. What were the ideological roots of kingship in this period  What institutions supported monarchical power
Essentially, it was the church that supported monarchical power during the Middle Ages, which was characterized by the union of Church and State, the source of Divine Right.  This was further underscored whenever monarchs were crowned by the Bishop or Pope which symbolized this union as well as underscore the primacy of the Church over the state.

16. What were the limitations on royal power  Who opposed monarchy
Despite ruling absolutely, there were things monarchs could not do when it came to exercising their power, such as arbitrarily raising taxes or appointing bishops which fell under the purview of Church authority. In the case of England, it was the barons who opposed the monarchy and they showed their power influence by getting King John to sign the Magna Carta which took away some of his powers and gave it to them.
Papal Power and Religious Reform

17. What core values characterized the movement of religious reform in the High Middle Ages
It the result of the lack of appeal of the rural monastic values.  Several individuals tried to enliven the profession of faith by proffering different ideas such as those brought up by the Albigensians and Waldensians which were branded heretical by the Church as their ideas ran counter to mainstream teaching.

18. How did the papacy in the High Middle Ages practically exercise its power  What ideological foundations lay behind those powers  How were those points supported
By the time of Pope Innocent II, the Papacy had asserted its infalliability and made it known that the Popes word was absolute and above reproach or question.  Tradition was primarily the basis as the Pope is the Vicar of Christ and successor to Peter, the first pope.  The Pope would issue decrees or encyclicals to reaffirm these points.

19. How did the early medieval papacy compare with the papacy of the High Middle Ages
The Papacy became even more powerful in the High Middle Ages compared to the earlier period. The Crusades had decimated most of Europes leaders and with the lack of strong capable leaders, the Church, through the Pope, took it upon itself to take the lead in bringing about stability during these times.

20. In what different ways did different religious orders interpret the ideals of the reform movement in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
Religious orders such as the Franciscans and Dominicans were formed to counter the heresies arising during those times.  The  reform  movements they saw were born out of the gradual urbanization of towns as mercantilism was phasing out feudalism and individual thinkers developed new ideas that were commensurate to this new trend and this was something the religious orders did not tolerate as they appear to be deviating from the teachings of the Church and dealt with them severely.

21. Who was threatened by the rise of papal power  How would you describe the relationship of the high-medieval reform movement and heresy  How did the church respond to heresy
If there were those threatened by the rise of papal power, it would be some of the monarchies because they saw the Church as political rivals for power.  They were trying to capitalize on the revitalized economy of Europe following the Crusades and brought in new ideas.  These new ideas prompted some to come up with their own interpretations of church teachings which ran counter to the norm and as such were branded as heretics and soundly persecuted.

Europeans on the Silk Road

22. What motivated Europeans to travel to the Far East along the so-called  Silk Road   What conditions made it possible for such journeys to take place
The Crusades was a blessing in disguise if seen from an economic point of view as the link between the orient and occident was reestablished.  They west was attracted by the wonders and the imagined wealth of the orient and they wanted to partake of it.  Through the Crusades, the Silk Road made it possible to travel over land.

23. What were the effects of this contact with the East on Europe itself
It helped put an end to feudalism and brought in mercantilism.  Land was no longer the  currency  or basis of wealth but from the goods, as well as the currency in silver and gold.

24. How might Marco Polo s account of Kubilai Khan have attempted to shift European attitudes toward the Mongols  How is his account based on European ideas
It made Europeans more interested in the material wealth of the orient and from the way Marco Polo described them, they forgot about how  barbaric  the Mongols were.  Naturally, when Marco Polo wrote his account, he was writing it as a European.  Essentially, he was a  tourist  in China and that was how he described the things he saw there.
Crises of the Fourteenth Century

25. Why might historians refer to the fourteenth century as a time of crisis
This was punctuated by war and an epidemic of greater proportions no one had ever experienced before as it practically affected most of Europe.

26. What were the root causes of the Hundred Years War  How did motivation of the conflict shift over time
This was primarily due to dispute in claims as lords of England and France disputed territories that was bestowed or considered their birthright.

27. How would you explain the significance of the Hundred Years War  How did it represent a more  modern  war
It introduced new tactics in fighting, such as the employment of longbowmen whose skills negated the capabilities mounted knights plus the fact the English employed mobile infantry and developed tactics in defeating knights.

28. What were some of the social consequences of the Hundred Years War
It helped arouse nationalist sentiments, especially among the French.  As for the English, the longer the war went, the lesser the support they enjoyed as they felt it was no longer a worthwhile venture andhot tired of it.

29. What socio-economic and demographic factors contributed to the Black Death
The thriving mercantilist economy of Europe brought it the carriers or the disease in rats from th orient plus the face that cities and towns were greatly congested as populations increased in greater numbers.

30. How would you characterize the response to the Black Death in religious terms  In what ways did the Black Death lead to a questioning of authority
The Church failed to address the problems brought by the Black Death as they themselves were affected by the plague, and this had somehow revealed their vulnerability and disproved infallability.  This had led people to seek answers elsewhere.
Humanism and New Religiosity

31. What essential traits characterized the religious revival of the later Middle Ages  How was this reform different from the reforms of the high-medieval church
This emphasized increased faith in the individuals abilties, coupled with devotion to Christianity which made it different from early reform movements which were branded as heretical.

32. How did late-medieval religion challenge existing church elites  Why might the late-medieval religion be called  populist
They espouse teachings that appeal to the masses and these were all based on Scriptures.  It sought to bring Christianity closer to the people which was what it was meant to be, rather than let it be an exclusive domain of the elites.

33. Describe the central features of the humanist movement.  How did Christian humanism develop out of this phenomenon
It mainly focuses on the individual.  It empowers the individual to seek answers rather than depend on others to provide it.  In relation to Christianity, it still allowed one to maintain a closer relationship with God through the exercise of free will.

34. Why would Christian humanist principles have been a threat to the established clerical elite
Because it did not come from them and their approach was  revolutionary.  It did not adhere to their standards which was characterized by ascetic living that was their hallmark.  Christian humanism emphasized that this was not necessary.

35. What would say is the relationship between Christian humanism and the late-medieval religious revival
They were similar to an extent but the former did not try to introduce anything new such as challenge existing doctrines but simply made use of existing teachings and presented it in a new light.
The Birth of Printing

36. How did developments in high-medieval society pave the way for the birth of the printing press  In what ways might the advent of print be seen as a  conservative  phenomenon
The economic deveopment of the high middle ages, also had an effect of the social and intellectual life of Europeans. Entrepreneurship spurred the likes of Guttenberg to come up with technology that could produce manuscripts at a faster rate as the demand for reading materials increased and speed was essential.
The Age of Discovery

37. In what ways might the changing global political situation in Asia during the later fourteenth and fifteenth c. have led to the European  Age of Discovery
This was brought about by the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.  This had closed the Silk Road and it prompted the west to seek alternate routes to the orient.

38. How does the unique history of the Iberian peninsula help explain the participation of the Spaniards and Portuguese in the  Age of Discovery
This can be attroibuted to its geographic location on the western coast of Europe where they face both the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.  Both Spaniards and Portuguese had taken part in the Crusades and developed an adventurous streak which would serve them well.

39. How did Columbus s voyages rest on a foundation of medieval ideas  How was his  discovery  revolutionary  Why did he himself refuse to accept this discovery
Columbus had read Marco Polos account, and probably the accounts of other travelers to the orient which would serve as his basis for planning his own expeditions and believe that the world was not flat.  His discovery was revoultionary in the sense that he tried to travel to the orient by taking a westward route which he thought would be shorter and faster.

40. What central differences distinguished the Portuguese colonial expansion from that of the Spanish in the early Age of Discovery
The Portuguese took the lead in the Age of Discovery and they expanded eastward.  To avoid disputes, the Treaty of Tordesillas, gave the western hemisphere to Spain which was not so bad at all as the territories they occupied was greater.