West European Studies

1. Discuss the reasons for the outbreak of the Reformation. What long term and short term factors led Luther (1483   1546) to condemn the practices of the Church What additional criticisms did Luther have Lastly, what impact did the Reformation have on German society during Luthers life after the posting of his 95 theses in 1517

The decades of renaissance and reformation in Europe were characterized by religious, political and legal conflict. For instance, in Germany, conflict in the church was triggered by the opposition of Martin Luther and his followers against the Roman Catholic Church. During the early sixteenth century, they made efforts to defend the right of the German Christians to worship in ways other than those that had been sanctioned by the Pope in Rome. Many residents in Germany s imperial cities supported  the reformation due to the grievances they had  against the Catholic Church (Ozmet, p.69). The opposition of Luther and his followers against the Catholic Church led to the establishment of the Protestantism which was further divided into Lutherans, Calvinists and Pietists. The publication of Luther s Ninety Five Theses in 1517 marked the beginning of reforms within the church because it criticized the church for corruption through the selling of indulgences, neglecting the true essence of Christian teachings, oppression of protestants by the Catholic church, intrusion of the church into political leadership and for undermining the freedom  of the Christians (Ozmet, p.67).

There were short and long term factors that led to the condemnation of the Catholic Church practices by Martin Luther during the reformation. One major factor was the Roman Catholic Church system of selling and abusing indulgences. Luther condemned the practices of the Catholic Church in order to introduce reforms in the church. Luther s opposition to the selling of indulgences and doctrinal policies of the Catholic Church was clear when he placed the Ninety-Five Theses on the door of All Saints Church (Ozmet, p.71). The doctrine of indulgences had been formulated in the thirteenth century and supported the church s doctrine of purgatory and sacrament of penance. The sacrament of penance was expected to provide forgiveness of sins to the Christians but it was abused when individuals were allowed to purchase indulgence. For example, the Dominican Johann Tetzel sold special plenary indulgence in order to raise money for the rebuilding of the Saint Peters in Rome. The popes support for this confirmed the existence of systematic corruption in the Catholic Church. Luther also rejected the Catholic Churchs sacramental system and condemned the selling of church s clerical positions. As a result, Luther intended to restore the true essence of Christian teachings that had been undermined by the Catholic Church. He therefore condemned the Catholic Church for teaching that salvation could be achieved through the church system rather than through grace and faith in Christ. Moral corruption that included the abuse of responsibility and privilege by priests through absenteeism and simony was witnessed in the Catholic Church. Simony was the use of influence or wealth by individuals to purchase ecclesiastical office and pluralism whereby the clergy could hold numerous leadership positions simultaneously. Furthermore, priests abused or ignored the practice of celibacy and this led to the immoral conduct of the clergy. Many Christians lacked confidence in the papacy, hence questioned his legitimacy and the conduct of the Roman Catholic Church clergy. For instance, the effect of the renaissance on the papacy made some Catholic popes concentrate more on art and classical nature instead of spiritual matters. The Catholic Church rulers suppressed the protestant religious reforms and this was also of great concern to Luther and his followers. Since Luther was opposed to the Catholic church doctrine and teachings as well as the conduct of Catholic church clergy, he sought for the freedom of the Christians and demanded for the establishment of self-regulating and biblically informed Christian communities (Ozmet, p.69). He wanted the church to act as a Gemeinde whereby a community of fellow believers are spiritual equals who take moral responsibility for each other s welfare.

After the reformation that had Luther post the Ninety Five Theses in 1517, efforts to introduce religious reforms triggered great changes in the German society through changes in the social, political and religious systems. The establishment of Protestantism led to divisions in the church which resulted to religious and social conflicts in the society. For example, the formation of other branches of Protestantism such as Calvinism, Lutheranism and Pietism led to conflicts between the followers. The reformers worked to achieve reforms in the social, political and domestic circles. This was achieved by securing reforms in institutions and law by co-opting the established power. This formed a new German civic society whereby the cumulative effects caused  by the reformation led to changes  in education, politics, domestic life and social welfare (Ozmet,p.87). Reforms in the German society supported the struggle for honest institutions and just laws. The political leadership aided the growth of Protestantism when Luther had German princes exhorted to become  emergency bishops . The bishops provided protestant churches with the authority, administration and force that were required for the maintenance of the Protestant churches. Religion became integrated in the civil life through Germany s welfare system, new schools and domestic arrangements. The unification of the German people in linguistics and culture witnessed was centered on hymns, bible teachings, catechism and vernacular sermons that were given by Luther. Schools in the German society began providing both secular and religious education.

2. After the chaos of the Thirty Years of War, absolutism arose in many German states. What is absolutism and how was it ultimately practiced in Prussia Indeed, how do you explain Prussias successful increase in power and influence under the leadership of the Hohenzollerns

The Thirty Years of War were catastrophic for the German society due to the effects of the religious conflict that was witnessed during the period (Ozmet, p.111). Absolutism arose in German states when Germany was split into various states. The end of the war period after the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia had transformed the German states during the eighteenth century into absolute states (Ozmet, p.125). The Treaty of Westphalia empowered the German states to be sovereign where independent states became absolute monarchs. The rise of absolutism can be attributed to the chaos caused by religious wars which had the religious divisions affect the political leadership of the absolute states. There was no political unity among states. The states spun further away from the unifying of the Hapsburg imperial hub when states such as Bavaria, Austria, Wurttemberg, Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia became centralized powers. The states had their own professional armies, foreign alliances, baroque palaces, state bureaucracies and courts. However, the Hapsburg Austria remained as the seat of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany.

In Prussia, absolutism was practiced through the establishment of a dynasty of kings to provide leadership. Absolutism was progressive in Prussia and political checks and balances were still in existence (Ozmet, p.126).Various special government agencies were created to support strategic economic development. The king advocated religious pluralism and permitted the freedom of the press. This earned him the title of  Prophet of unlimited freedom press . The state had strong military forces which increased the power of the state in Europe. Education was provided to all citizens and civil reforms were supported. The reforms aimed at addressing social problems that were experienced in the state. Under the leadership of the Hohenzollerns, there was successful increase in power and influence in Prussia. This was due to be establishment of a dynasty of kings who lived long and had great ability to conquer other states and build Prussia (Ozmet, p.129). For example, Frederich William  Great Elector  laid military and economic foundations by bending the nobility to his rule. Prussia had its own hereditary crown. Although Prussia had a small land mass and a population of only three million people, Prussia had Europe s third strongest army. Frederick set the expansion of Prussia when he challenged Austria. This allowed Prussia to expand between 1648 and 1786. Frederick II  the Great  who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786 had the Prussian army grow in numbers under the Hohenzollern s leadership. After 1740, civic reforms and military ventures of Frederick transformed Prussia into a premier state in Germany and one of the great powers in Europe. Prussian virtues of obedience and discipline were observed. These virtues were considered to be the pillars of the Prussian military. The Prussian political leadership managed to pursue the codification of the Prussian law and the opening up of civil service to the middle classes. The emergence of Pietism in Prussia promised its adherents Orthodox Protestantism and state authority that the Calvinists and the Lutheran shad failed to provide. Prussian society was characterized by formulaic religions, rigid class divisions and iron rule. Furthermore, the creation of special government agencies for strategic development increased the success and rise of power of Prussia. The top down integration of Pietism and old politics whereby the doors of government, schools and military became opened to Halle s graduates who served as teachers, chaplains and administrators were vital in the success of the states in Germany and Europe. The integration promoted religious and social reforms and increased the church-state cooperation in Prussia under the leadership of the Hohenzollerns.

Conclusion
The political and religious leadership in Germany and Europe after the sixteenth century was shaped by the events that unfolded during the renaissance and reformation period. The outbreak of the reformation in Germany had a great impact on the German society because it led to the establishment of Protestantism and triggered reforms in the political and social systems. Martin Luther who led the reformers played a critical role in introducing reforms in the church. After the thirty years of war that was marked by religious conflicts, rise of absolutism in Germany led to the division of the German Empire into sovereign states. Some states such as Prussia managed to become powerful and successful in Germany and Europe.