Bismarck and the German Nation Politics, process and consequences
Germany, as one united nation, was at the forefront of European empire-building. Meanwhile, increasingly lethal weapons of war were being developed that would allow Germany and other European nations to expand their influence. Many of the factors that would result in two twentieth-century World Wars were emerging in the late 19th century. Economics, society and politics were all changing at a rapid place.
Germany sought to take advantage of the changes to establish an Empire. Otto Von Bismarck was a central figure in the development of German nationalism and therefore an extremely important character in German and world history. A Germanic nation was never a given. Bismarck operated with great skill to create it. There was no template for creating a nation-state from the remnants of the old family empires. Bismarcks historical legacy is mixed, but more complex than what is usually portrayed. His imprint, for better or worse, casts a long shadow over the first century of German history.
Background
In the 1840s the area now known as Germany was a collection of ethnic and regional alliances. Overshadowing these local concerns were two empires, one based in Prussia and the other in Austria. Internal and external conflicts were frequent. A revolt in 1848 led to a reorganization of the Prussian government. Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was an up and coming representative in the new legislature.
Bismarck was born into the Prussian elite and would resist popular uprisings against these elite throughout his career. He went on to become an ambassador and was widely regarded as an effective diplomat. Bismarck became President of the North German Confederation in 1862, and the first Chancellor of the German Empire in 1871. His skill in both international relations and domestic politics cannot be underestimated when tracing the foundations of the German nation.
Europe itself was undergoing a transformation. The old empires that had dominated it for centuries were slowly but surely disintegrating. Economies were also changing and populations were becoming more urban-centered. The successful American and French revolutions gave rise to revolutionary thought across Europe. Socialism and other liberal philosophies were gaining ground in response to unrestrained capitalism during the industrial revolution.
The world was changing and the nation-state arose to fill the power vacuum left by the old empires. This is the world in which Bismarck operated. To some he is seen as the direct cause of the German horrors of the 20th century. To others he was a statesman who actually delayed the outbreak of the First World War for decades. What is unquestioned is that he was the pre-eminent political operator of his time.
Forming a New Nation
In the mid 1800s various German states were organized into an association called the German Bund. The Bund was ruled by the Habsburgs, still powerful remnants of the Holy Roman Empire centered in Austria. Later several of the Germanic states would organize into the North German Confederation in which Prussia was the dominant power. Eastern Germany, known as Prussia, was an empire of its own.
In 1848, German liberals tried to take advantage of civil unrest to forge a unification of Germanic states. At a meeting in Frankfurt a constitution was drafted that included the right to vote for all males. Friedrich Wilhelm IV was offered the position of Emperor, but he declined. Because of fear from opposing forces the conference ultimately failed. Into this void stepped a member of the Prussian elite, Otto von Bismarck.
Otto von Bismarck served as a diplomat for the Prussian Empire but this only increased his mistrust of other European powers. None the less he was widely regarded as an effective ambassador. Most of Bismarcks early career was spent in the Prussian legislature where he consistently advocated for a strong military and a stern approach to diplomatic relations. Bismarck had dreams of a larger Germanic empire which did not include Austria and, more specifically, the Habsburgs.
At an international conference Bismarck claimed that Germany is too small for the both of us (Beran, 2007, 46). The statement was largely ignored at the time but it signified a shift in European politics that would play out over the next 75 years. The phrase blood and iron became closely associated with Bismarck as he rose to power in the second half of the 19th century.
The continuing rise of liberal thought challenged the militaristic elite, of which Bismarck was a part. His claim that Germanys problems could only be rectified by blood and iron was meant to startle the German public (Hobsbawm, 1987, 189). He implied that a Marxist or socialist regime would not be able to defend the country. Only the German elite could control and direct the military effectively while simultaneously managing internal issues.
Bismarck was a conservative who sought to maintain conservative control, particularly in the German power center of Prussia. He was in favor of universal suffrage unless, of course, it could result in conservative downfall. Marxism and Communism were threats to the landed elite that Bismarck had to cope with throughout his tenure.
To blunt criticism from liberals, he introduced several social welfare programs and labor reforms in Germany. Meanwhile, he used France, Russia and Austria as external threats that could only be dealt with by increasing military capability. In 1866 Prussia defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War. Only four years later Prussia went to war with France. This was the opportunity for German unification Bismarck had always sought.
After defeating France Bismarck turned to another project he considered no less important than the fall of Paris, the unification of Germany under Prussian rule (Friedrich, 1995, 199). In 1871, William I was named Emperor of Germany at Versailles Palace in Paris. Bismarck is named Chancellor of Germany. His first order of business is diminishing the power of the Catholic Church a critic of the Lutheran Bismarck, and foster the secularization of Germany. The building of the German military continued. The combination of these events, along with the perceived threats to the new nation, laid the groundwork for a fervent nationalism to develop.
Conflict between the Habsburgs in Austria and the Russian Empire put Germany in a difficult position. Bismarck tried to remain friendly to Russia, but it was apparent to most observers at the time that Germany would eventually have to side with its historical ally Austria. Russia, in response would ally itself with France. By the early 1890s two power groups therefore faced each other across Europe (Hobsbawm, 1987, 313). A European arms race was under way.
Bismarck was the consummate political actor in holding together a union of territories with disparate interests and molding them into an empire. The new German nation had a dynamic leader, a strong military and access to vast material and human resources. Germany became a center of scientific innovation and education. The makings of a great nation were in place, but rational and irrational fears of external threats would jeopardize its long-term success.
Bismarcks Legacy and Concluding Thoughts
Otto Von Bismarck can certainly not be assessed the blame for all of 20th century Germanys actions. Hobsbawm writes that the First World War resulted from a progressively deteriorating international situation which increasingly escaped from the control of the governments (1987, 312). In fact Bismarck played the game of international relations well for years with his ultimate goal being peace. Bismarcks statements show an internal conflict. He shuddered at the horrors of war. He also believed war was necessary to achieve peace. He wanted peace on his own terms however.
Bismarck had established alliances across Europe committing Germany to come to the aid of Austria-Hungary and other allies in case of attack. This type of diplomacy locked in opposing military forces and reduced diplomatic flexibility that could have otherwise solved problems. Bismarck saw alliance diplomacy as a means to achieving peace. His goals were short-term and defensive in nature (Kennedy, 1987, 249). Other nations, however, saw it as provocative. They established alliances of their own and Europe moved down a slippery slope of mistrust.
In order to hold his new empire together Bismarck resorted to non-democratic means. He dissolved parliament and collected funds for the military without government authorization. He also enacted laws prohibiting socialism. He also tried to marginalize and isolate the Catholic Church by the process of Kulturkampf, an overt initiative to attack the church.
After his death nationalists idolized him and exaggerated his commitment to imperialism. They ignored his efforts at reconciliation and compromise. In the wake of Bismarck Germany had become an aggressive, nationalistic power. This would cost millions their lives in the century to come. Viewed through a 20th century lens that includes Adolf Hitler and Kaiser Wilhelm, Bismarck became a caricature of himself. Those leaders miscast and misrepresented Bismarck for their own political ends.
As with most historical figures, the truth is more complex and shaded with gray than the modern image. Bismarck, above all, was a politician. He was not an ideologue like Hitler or other 20th century dictators. Did his actions set Germany on a path toward that kind of leadership The answer is not as obvious as some would like to think. In his time Bismarck was highly regarded as a maker of peace through strength. At the same time he built a militaristic, nationalistic state and worked hard to silence any dissent within that state. He also stoked fears of France, Russia and Austria for political ends.
The foundation of a Germanic nation was a process that occurred over many decades. Otto von Bismarck gave that process a tremendous shove forward. His skill in doing so was nothing short of remarkable. Domestically, Bismarck installed some ahead-of-their-time social programs that still exist in Germany today. National health care and labor laws designed to decrease exploitation are legacies of the Bismarck chancellorship.
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