West European Studies

The German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 marks the beginning of the Second World War (1939 - 45). It instigated Britain to declare war on Germany, although for previous several years Britain had adopted a stance of indifference to the rapid growth of German might and subsequently followed a policy of appeasement with Germany, in a desperate bid to forestall another war.

Germany lost World War I, but it did not lose its desire for global status and influence. On the contrary, Germanys ambitions intensified. Thus conditions were ripe for the second great conflict of the twentieth century, as Germany pursued an aggressive course of reasserting itself. The growing nationalistic tendencies among Germans rationalized the expansion of German borders both to regain provinces previously lost to others and to absorb Germans living in Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.  Incidentally, the largest slice of territory that had been German before 1918 belonged to Poland.

The rise of fascism  the Nazi regimes ideology which championed racism, flag and the fatherland  became the driving force for this renewed imperialistic push. Germanys machtpolitik viewed the expansion of state power and territory by use of armed force as a legitimate goal. It justified the forceful expansion of the German state and the other Axis powers aligned with Germany.

Germany also resented the punitive terms imposed by the victors of World War I (France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States). Reflecting mostly the demands of the French, the Treaty of Versailles insisted on the destruction of German armed forces, the loss of territory (such as Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had absorbed following the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871), and the imposition of heavy reparation payments to compensate the Allies for the damage that German militarism had caused. In addition, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire was splintered into several political units. The Treaty of Versailles sought to prevent Germanys reentry into the global system as a coequal member. And Germany sought to recover by force its perceived rightful status as a great world power (Historyworld.net).

Meanwhile, as absurd as it would seem to the later generations, both the British people and their government during the pre -Second World War era grossly overlooked the terrible menace that was looming over the horizon in the form of Adolf Hitler, in spite of all the signs pointing to it.

Adolf Hitler, who by mid-1930s was in charge of Germany, at first declared his intention not to expand German territory by force. Britain had navely built up fond hopes that Hitler would stand by his word. However, in March 1938 he forced Austria into union with Germany (the Anschluss), thereby betraying his earlier promise. Shortly thereafter, he demanded the annexation of the German-populated area of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Fear of further German expansion led to the September 1938 Munich Conference attended by Hitler, Chamberlain, and leaders of France and Italy. Based on the erroneous conviction that appeasement would halt further German expansionism and lead to peace, Chamberlain and the others acceded to Hitlers demands (Keegan 34).

Therefore when Hitler attacked Czechoslovakia, Britain was in for a rude awakening. When Hitler launched his first major Blitzkrieg operation on Poland, the British had to per force open their eyes and face the truth of the situation, although they would fully rise to the occasion only during the Battle of Britain. Britain was pushed into war with Germany simply in order to defend itself. Because, in the nine months leading up to the Second World War during 1939, it became gradually clear for everyone that Hitler represented an evil that would soon pounce upon Britain if allowed to proceed unobstructed.

Britain and France declared war on Germany after Hitler had refused to abort his invasion of Poland. Poland, however, was not the main consideration  it was Europe. In question was not the territory of Poland but the future of the world. While America did not join with Britain and France, it too heavily supported Britain by providing vital supplies.

The first battle of the World War II was the Battle of the Atlantic that took place between British naval convoys and German U-boats. In Europe, Germany continued its blitzkrieg incursions into European nations unchallenged. Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in the first months of 1940, and while Denmark fell immediately Norway put up some meager resistance. The German war machine marched on unstoppable. In May, Germany invaded Holland, Belgium and France. At this time, Winston Churchill became the Prime Minister of the Great Britain.

If Hitler was the biggest villain of the Second World War, Winston Churchill could be considered one of its greatest heroes, and the closest counterpart to the evil dictator. If only the British government had heeded Churchills lonesome voice alerting Britain of Germanys growing menace during the 30s, the Second World War could have been averted, or at least Britain could have been in a much more prepared position to face Germany. But Britain woke up very late and had to pay dearly as a consequence. It was Churchill who inspired the nation which had just come to its senses to gather its reserves of strength and courage and counter the enemy effectively. Churchill had been a member of Parliament for 40 years, from 1900 to 1940 (Spartacus Educational). When the British people finally realized that he would be the best person to lead the country to war, they did the right thing and Churchill never disappointed them. And even as Churchill became the Prime Minister, the enemy was closing in rapidly.

Holland and Belgium fell by the end of May of 1941, and Paris was taken a little later. Paris was the cultural capital of Europe, and Hitler took great pride in capturing the great city. Despite being present in large numbers, the British and French troops in Europe could not face the might of the Germany army, and hundreds of thousands of British and French soldiers had to be hastily evacuated from the port of Dunkirk on the Belgian coast. The Battle of Dunkirk was a humiliating defeat for Britain. By now Europe was virtually in the hands of Hitler. Germany next eyed Britain. Since Britain was separated from the mainland, Hitler had to resort to air force to attack Britain. The Battle of Britain was fought from July to September of 1940, between German Luftwaffe and British RAF. London and other cities of Britain were mercilessly pounded by Luftwaffes blitz attacks. Thousands of civilians died, and millions of ordinary people were terrorized. Those was dark and challenging times for Britain and Winston Churchills leadership proved decisive in boosting the morale of the nation and stall Germanys vicious attacks. The RAF finally managed to ward off the Luftwaffe and Britain scored a tenuous victory in the Battle of Britain. Germany had to indefinitely postpone its invasion plans. However, Germanys bombing of Britains cities continued frequently till the end of the war, as well as Britains equally ruthless retaliations.

Meanwhile the theater of war shifted to outside of Europe. Large contingents of German forces were stationed in North Africa at the beginning of 1942. Germany also defeated Greece and Yugoslavia in the Eastern Europe.  This was the time when millions of Jews in Germany were deported to concentration camps. The holocaust was happening. Over six million Jews and Slavs and other peoples would perish in its burning fires.

Now Hitler undertook a major offensive by invading Russia in the Operation Barbarossa. The lightning speed of the German advance struck fear and panic in the Soviet people. The Nazi army swiftly conquered vast territories, killing and capturing hundreds of thousands of troops, pillaging, plundering and massacring civilian populations. Smolensk and Kiev fell in September. Leningrad was under siege. Over one million people died in Leningrad due to starvation and cold. The German army marched relentlessly on the road to Moscow, blazing a trail of destruction, murder and mayhem on its path. By December, however, Germany became heavily susceptible the bitter cold of Russian winter, and the Russians used this opportunity to begin their counter attack.

The Soviet-German conflict raged between June 1941 and May 1945. It was a particularly brutal and destructive war, unprecedented in its ferocity and lack of any moral constraint. This barbarized warfare exacted an immense death toll of over 25 million people on the Soviet side, a majority of them being civilians.

Meanwhile the Japanese entered the scene by launching a surprise attack on the US Navy base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1942. Till then the US saw the savage battles that were going on as being part of a European war, and it did not want to interfere in the European scene to the extent possible. Many American politicians had advocated an isolationist stance toward Europe. The initial reluctance of America to join Britain and France stemmed from the reluctance of American people to get involved in wars (America in the World). There was a wide-spread anti-war sentiment among many sections of the American population. But being attacked unprovoked on its own soil left America no option but to join the bloody conflict. America declared war on Japan, and Germany declared war on America. The Allied and the Axis sides were consolidated  America, Britain, Canada and Australia vs. Germany, Japan and Italy. The Second World War now assumed global proportions.

Japan went on to invade Philippines and Burma. The Pacific War was underway. There were already numerous American military bases in the Pacific. However, American had to yet enter Europe. American soldiers landed in England by January of 1942. In the first few months of that year, the mutual German and British air raids and the unrestrained killing of civilian populations intensified. Meanwhile Rommel led his Afrika Corps to one victory after another, and Japan continued its expansion in the Pacific, capturing Indonesian islands. Singapore too fell into the hands of the Japanese and thousands of British soldiers were taken prisoners of war. From June of that year, however, the tide began to turn. Japan suffered defeat in the hands of America in the Battle of Midway. And for the first time, the German forces were effectively thwarted when General Montgomery leading the British troops gained an upper hand over the Germans on the North African front (Britannica.com).  The first complete defeat of the Germans would soon come at Stalingrad.

The Battle of Stalingrad was the bloodiest battle in the Second World War and marked one of its few major turning points. The battle lasted from 13 September 1942 until the final German surrender on 2 February 1943. In the titanic struggle that raged on the shores of the River Volga, the German Wehrmacht faced a crushing and humiliating defeat from which it would never manage to recover. To the Germans, Stalingrad signified the first and the most catastrophic defeat.

One defeat followed another for Germany. In May of 1943, German U-boats retreated and the Battle of Atlantic was over. The German forces in North Africa surrendered to the Allies. For some time, the theater of battle shifted to Italy. In September, Italy surrendered to the Allies, but German troops entered Italy and there were many encounters between the opposite sides.

The British and Indian troops were fighting the Japanese in Burma, and the American army successfully resisted Japanese forces in Guadalcanal. After Stalingrad, Russia continued advancing and recapturing the fallen cities from the Germans. Japan penetrated deeper into China. The clashes between the Germans and the Allied forces continued in Italy until Rome was liberated in June.

The biggest operation ever undertaken in the military history of the world, dubbed Operation Overlord, commenced on June 6, 1944  the D-Day. The Allies landed 6,500 vessels full of soldiers on five beaches of Normandy on the French coast. Much of this area was guarded by barricaded Germans. Allied casualties were expected to be very heavy in the first hours of landing. However, clever use of decoys and misleading information previously by the Allies minimized the causalities. Upon overcoming the initial upsets after landing, the Allies were virtually unstoppable, mirroring the might of the German army during the first months of the war. The Allied troops were supported by air fleet. The advance of the Allied forces was, however, relatively slow because of the nature of the terrain of the French countryside. Paris was liberated in August, and the Germans were now on the run everywhere. Nevertheless the Germans initiated one last and desperate counteroffensive against the Allies in December, in the Battle of Bulge at Ardennes. During this tragic episode, the Germans managed to kill 20,000 Americans, before the Allies finally took control of the situation.

The only German offensive after this would be the continued dropping of bombs, including the V-1 and V-2 long-range ballistic missiles, on Britains cities. However, at this stage, these attacks did not inflict great damage.  The Soviets advanced unimpeded across the Eastern Europe and arrived in Berlin by 21st April, 1945. Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered on 7th May 8th May, 1945 was celebrated as the VE (Victory in Europe) Day.

On the Pacific front the war continued to rage. During the course of 1944 and 45, major battles took place in Burma, Philippines, and the Japanese islands of Okinawa and Iwo Jima. On 6th August, 1945, America dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima and dropped another bomb three days later on Nagasaki. Japan surrendered on 14 August.

The Second World War was the bloodiest conflict in human history. Over fifty million people were dead in all, a majority of whom were civilians. It was an immense tragedy, but it also helped usher in the world into the modern times.

The application of mathematical principles is inevitable in the study of epidemiology. Besides, the prevalence of any diseases and ailment is always done in geographical settings. These two are vital in the analysis and understanding of disease spread, prevalence and incidences.

It is empirically proven that some diseases appear prevalent in certain regions than in others. For example, in mountainous areas, malaria has a relatively high prevalence than in low lands. To reach this important medical conclusion statistics and probability will be duly utilized. This paper dissects the varied mathematical and geographical application and implications in epidemiology. Any epidemiological study does show the implication of the varied rates of spread and prevalence through mathematical analysis.

There are varying causal factors of different diseases and conditions. To find insight into the prevention and spread of ailments, research is undertaken into the diseases in different areas. Geographical aspects such as climate of the area are analyzed alongside the other variables such as nutrition and heredity.

The idea of population in itself is a geographical aspect. Within this premise, it makes it quite difficult to delineate geography and epidemiology. The contextual definition of epidemiology within this paper, the many definitions not withstanding, will be the study of factors linked directly to the health and illness of a population that is in question.

Epidemiology serves as a basis and logic for medical interventions. This is done for sheer interest of the health of the public and prospective preventive medical reasons. The medical fraternity is emphasizing the adoption of evidenced based practice. This approach to medical practice approaches medicine strictly based on existing evidence. Further still, the evidence is location based and analytical in nature (Panikkar, Bindu, 2007, p 129). This approach not only makes epidemiology geographically and mathematically based but also makes the three inalienable.

The analyses of population structures have always given insight into the likelihood of disease spread and the subsequent disease control. The efficacy of any disease control measures is also based on empirical analysis. This analysis is undertaken using a statistical approach, further making the understanding of mathematics inevitable in epidemiology.

I feel strongly that the argument by Immaculada that research defeats the purpose of revolutionary science which ultimately endeavors to improving medical care to society has limited basis (Melo-Martin, Immaculada, 2007, p.220). Besides, if the data is genuinely gathered for the sake of improving the wellbeing of human welfare, then strongly this perception by Immaculada should be given a second thought.

On the contrary, I tend to concur with her assertion that despite the researches there is still discrimination in medical practice in America. Whatever the extent the assertion may be true, it bring forth numerous questions. Given the relative nature of the various researches that are undertaken, I feel the analytical aspects of the research provide varied solutions to very specific setting. This provides a practical approach to evidence based practice in medical practices.

The existence of homoplasic genes that particularly exhibit themselves as SNP with prevalence rate put at 0.88 that were only explained through analysis shows the development of resistance that is attained differently in different geographical settings. Besides, the developmental tree developed, shows unwavering consistence with the relative geographical sources.

The comparison undertaken by Harris, et al (Harris, Simmon R 2010, p.473) shows that there in single variant through the continent. This shows an expansion trend if exposed to distinctly and uniformly clustered clade. In China the isolates formed a single but diverse clade. In Europe much diversity was exhibited with their position being basal. Further, the European isolates manifested clustering that appeared geographically oriented. This intercontinental spread of MRSA in very distinctive forms is indicative of the role that geography plays in the development of epidemiological theory.

It appears disheartening that fewer philosophers are content with in-depth analysis of epidemiological data. The contentious anecdote, though not sufficient enough, looks at epidemiological mathematical and geographical approach from a very lopsided point of view leaving out the basic principles on which the foundation of this analysis are laid.

Nonetheless, the idea of health equity that was gaining ground pushed for the adoption of this vital and pivotal approach to epidemiology (Amsterdamska, 2007). The World Health organization conceptualization of health equity gave further teeth to this course. It is the three tier framework of ethical bridging that gave reenergized meaning to the social study of epidemiology. Subsequently, this has generally motivated social response to this epidemiological approach. But the interdependence between the three subjects will remain whatever the controversy.  

A Dissection into Relationship with Geography and Mathematics

Cancer Prevalence
In the analysis of cancer epidemiology, there exists a set of combinable approaches. The extraction of the requisite data takes the take-off stage in the analysis. The data is summarized and delineated thereof. Given the geographical setting of the delineated studies, the study design is equally delineated. This ascribes to the principle practice of evidence based clinical practice and endeavors to address the diseases in strategic delineated spheres.

Research has shown that the spread of cancerous cells is high in areas that have high levels of uranium mining (Panikkar, Bindu, 2007, p.140). In Saskatchewan, where mining of uranium have led to high level of radon being deposited in water resources, research does shows that the prevalence of cancer is not only high but the trend has been an increasing one. Mining takes a geographical orientation and the setting of the very mineral remains equally so.

According to a manager in AECB in Canada, of every 1000 people exposed to radon gas at least one was diagnosed of lung cancer. Of those who had contracted lung cancer, 87 of the hundred who had the disease died not more than 12 months after contracting the disease. In understanding the depth of the problem at hand, the utility of mathematical analysis become inevitable.

Probability of contracting cancer within mining precincts will be calculated by dividing the number of those likely to contract the ailment (1) by the sample space (1000).

P (contracting cancer in Saskatchewan) Those likely to contract cancer

The sample space
   1    
 1000
This gives a likelihood of 0.001that at any give time a residency of Saskatchewan would contract lung cancer.

A similar research carried out in Australia reveals that the prevalence of the cancerous cells is relatively low. The contributory factors here are pecked on the fact that country in not having high levels of uranium mining. These presents a geographical disparity between the two countries in as far as cancer incidence is concerned. From a study in 2003 it emerged that of every 19000 persons in Australia, 3 had cancer.

The deduction arising from this analysis shows that geographical setting play a substantial role in the prevalence and incidence of cancerous cells. Similarly, according to RD Morris (Morris, 1994, p 67), there have to be assumptions of homogeneity in the analysis of such data. He asserts that the inter-study represents the consequences of predetermined and indiscriminate subject response.  

Prevalence of Measles
Demography is very pivotal in the analysis of disease incidence and spread. The transmissions of measles in densely populated areas in higher than in areas where the population is spatial. Demographic analysis presents geographically analyzed features. In slum areas, the prevalence and incidence of measles is quite high, standing at 4 out of 17 in Sub-Saharan Africa. While the prevalence amongst the middle class residing in areas that are decongested is 1 out of 51 children aged between 1 to7 years.

The respective probabilities are

Probability of contracting measles in Slums  likely number of persons contracting
   
The total sample space in sums
P (contracting measles in Slums) 4
17  
      0.235
Probability of middle class residents contracting  likely number of persons contracting
       
The total sample space in middle class
1
51
0.0196
The two present divergent transmission trends. This shows that the geographical setting of persons plays a role in the likelihood of disease contraction. Besides, this can only be established through subjecting certain variables to mathematical and statistical analysis.

These probabilities give quantitative support to the argument by Amsterdamska that diseases outbreak is not bound within bacteria, but rather it is dependent on aspects such as population, water accessibility, mortality, and morbidity data which is duly accessed through geographical practice. This shows the inalienability of epidemiology, mathematics, and geographical study.

There appears to be general fears that mathematics presents very many unnecessary calculations and formulae in the analysis of epidemiological issues. This assertion not withstanding, the very proponents of this fears tend to apply formulae without recording them on their worksheets.  They feel very discontented when they see the formulae and discontented on the sight of them.

Influenza Debacle
The influenza debacle of post World War 1 marked a new beginning in the approach to epidemiology. This meant that all diseases and ailment should be given attention but relative to their setting. Besides, bacteriology was seen in a similar wave with emphasized of geographical setting being termed as integral in the quest to treat, prevent, and analyze the different diseases and ailments. Provided epidemiology has to remain true to its objectives, amongst which is identification of epidemiological correlations, then geographical and mathematical essence will remain inevitable (Amsterdamska p 33).

This paper agrees and contents with the assertion by Frost that epidemiology will remain broad minded and multi-pronged in it approach to diseases. Seeing epidemiology as a mass phenomenal attention to infectious diseases, Frosts ideally satisfies the fact that epidemiology presents itself as a distinct science. It (Epidemiology) Frost argues attracts sufficient coherence and character from an immense range of spheres inclusive of immunology, protozoology, statistics and demography. Within the prelude of this analysis, though feared by some epidemiologists, mathematical analysis is inevitable and foundational.

During the interwar period data was collected to help analyze morbidity (Melo-Martin, 2007, p. 219) and
mortality in public healthy facilities. The data was used to give insight into the specific hypothesis of diseases and various environmental conditions. Besides, the data was used to offer support or to dispute the worth of certain public strategy. Within this mandate, the use of mathematical statistics became a subjected of protracted controversy for the shear proof of the fact that epidemiologists were stiff scared about mathematical calculations. Ironically, the very epidemiologists who were largely opposed to the use of mathematics were largely using mathematical concepts in the analysis of medical concepts.

The influenza debacle brought a mathematical reawakening to epidemiologists. The use of quantitative data in medicine became inevitable (Theodore H., 2007, p. 72). The research that also utilized largely geographical setting was meant for discriminate analysis of disease prevalence under varying geographical settings. In doing this, the intricacy and the imposing control of unconnected factors were addressed. The advent of epidemiological research marked the beginning of inevitable use of mathematical and geographical applications. Researchers were expected to indicate the location of the study which implied location obligation.

The two pronged approach to epidemiology implied that diseases were to be looked at as collective phenomena relying on a range of widely used scientific approaches orienting the study as an empirical science. The empiricism was to be location specific and character specific. This implied that whatever the approach, data needed to be specifically collected and empirically analyzed. In deed, the interaction of epidemiologists and statistical data became unwaveringly inevitable.

Ethnicity and race are geographical aspects. Resent researches have identified the two aspects as playing roles in diseases and ailment patterns (Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao, 2004, p.123). The study of races takes geographical orientations with varying resource availability. Besides even where resources exists in similar aspects, for example water, the mineral in the said waters vary considerably. These resources may contribute to the dental disease prevalence and sensitivities.
 
Flow chart showing the interaction of social factors and their epidemiological implications

Stilted, it needs to be noted that through the study of the different races we can be able to understand their respective genealogy (Jewell, Nicholas, 2003). Subsequently if research is carried out relative to the races, interventional measures can developed that are race specific and that can have a high efficiency level relative to generalized intervention measures the could not be race specific.

Peptic Ulcers
Woolfs research on the prevalence of peptic ulcers was meant to prove the unwavering essence of studying varying races in varied locations. While Woolf looks at the exposure odds in respect to the analyzed cohorts, one finds his approach grounding. Within his approach the essence of etiological studies is quite inherent (Harris, et al., 2010, p. 472). The information gathered by Woolf has the least reproach level. The logistical regression and Cox regression approach offered a reliable classical analytical approach though were subjected to restrictions and data strata that appeared ill thought.

Notable within the survey of peptic ulcers was that it appeared prevalent among a cohort that was largely low income. The data to discriminate the income strata was attained from the geographical statistic available. The income stratification is a sufficient pointer that the separation of geography and mathematics from epidemiology is far from possible.

In a study by Schneeweiss, et al. it emerges that a restricted study population would lead to increased homogeneity. This, Schneeweiss argues, will always reduce the confounding factors that would have a potential effect (Hanley, James A., 2009 p, 95). The use of restricted population rather than a randomized population yielded results closer to the trial results. The population restriction serves to attain the diversity in disease prevalence and incidence.

Segregation of disease and ailment data is worth the course towards it treatment. Claytons argument that these segregational results then ought to be matched offers a striking medical balance between two analytical values attained. The method herein described, focuses mainly on the efficiency attainable by partial selection of precise subjects. Though the approach lends itself to what Langholz terms as nested control, I feel it does offer a relatively satisfactory countermarching approach particularly where the cohort appears large enough.

Comparatively provided epidemiology is relying on non experimental comparisons confounded by unmeasured factors the result measure of interest should be evaluated. In specific situations the risk factors may not be correlated with the choice of medication (Venkatapuram, Sridhar, 2009 p. 84). The basis for emphasizing divergence in the cohorts is to determine the prescriptions. Such prescriptions have been sometimes without subtle consideration of pertinent chemical compositions. The ignoring of the possible unintended outcomes such as genotoxicity would be ultimately avoided, hence increasing the medical outcome. It need be noted further that the discrimination of population may assist in the quantifying of any maximum bias need for such unmeasured factor.
   
The effective utilization of the two sciences, mathematics and geography offers a basis for undertaking syndemic. The biological interaction of any two diseases may well be captured through statistical analysis of diseases patterns and ailments (Dworkin, M S). Comorbidity may only be attained within certain geographical setting. This gives epidemiologists insight into the relationships between diseases and communities. This perspective shows the interconnectedness of geography mathematics and epidemiology.

Conclusion
The foregoing discussion gives sufficient insight into the inevitable interaction between epidemiology, geography and mathematics. The deductible inference if that there exist an in-inexorable correlation between the incidence and prevalence of diseases and ailment and geographical aspects.

It is also evidenced that the various geographical aspects can be analyzed mathematical alongside the prevalence to deduce a meaning relationship can be utilized in developing causative factors and preventive measures for specific ailments (Loannidis, 2008, p. 645). This will be addressed relative to the different geographical setting.

Further the paper finds unwavering correlation between the confusing factors and key geographical aspects such as climate and mineral composition of natural resources such as water and diseases. In earnest the paper finds an inalienable correlation between geography and epidemiology. Subsequently, the paper addresses mathematics as the main interlude between the two studies picking a factor in geography and subjecting if to epidemiological discourse that dully gives medical meaning and confounding application therefore.

The foregoing discussion therefore is inclined and stands for the interdisciplinary approach to epidemiology. Ideally, all diseases will not have a similar treatment and control   strategy across different geographical setting hence the need adopt a multi pronged approach to epidemiology.

On the 15th of February 1944, the monastery of Monte Cassino was destroyed by 1, 400 tons of Allied bombs. The bombing was essentially based on the fear that the monastery was being used as a lookout post for the German Army. Two days later, German paratroopers took up positions in the monastery the ruins improved protection from air and artillery attack. From January 17 to May 18, the Gustav line was attacked by Allied formations. Finally, the Allies gathered 20 divisions for a major assault along a twenty mile front and broke through the German defenses with heavy casualties. The Monte Cassino Abbey was also captured.

The Stalemate
Initial attempts to break through the Gustav line and capture Monte Cassino failed miserably. The British X Corps attacked German formations across the Garigliano near the coast, overlooking Monte Cassino. The plan was to threaten supply lines at the rear of the Gustav line. The German XIV Panzer Corps repelled the Allied attack after the arrival of two divisions from Rome. The defenders had two major advantages. The terrain was rugged, suitable for defense. In addition, German supply lines were much shorter than their allied counterpart. Field Marshal Kesselring, the German commander of the Italian Front, could call on reinforcements from Rome in less than 24 hours.

Undaunted by the earlier defeat, the Allies launched another attack along the northern ridges of the mountain, overlooking Monte Cassino. The plan was to pinch out the town of Cassino and open up the Liri Valley. The allies sustained thousands of casualties on the first day of the offensive.

The Allies suspected that the monastery was being used as a lookout post of the Germans. The New Zealand Corps HQ convinced the Supreme Allied commander to bomb the monastery and launch a powerful attack on the center. On the 25th of February 1944, 142 B-17 Flying Fortresses with 47 B-25 Mitchell and 40 B-26 Marauder dropped 1 150 tons of high explosives and incendiaries. The monastery was destroyed.

The bombing proved to be one of the greatest military blunders in history. After the bombing, the Germans occupied the monastery and set-up a lookout post. Indeed, the bombing had been a liability to the Allies because it allowed the Germans to take advantage of the terrain. In addition, the air raid had not been coordinated between the air and ground commands. The raid took place two days before the New Zealand Corps was ready to launch their main assault. By this time, the Germans had already occupied and fortified the monastery.

The Breakthrough
On the 15th of March 1944, the New Zealand Corps, accompanied by several British formations attacked German positions in point 236 and 435. Again, German familiarity of the terrain proved decisive. The Germans repulsed the attack and forced the Allies to withdraw. On May 11, the Allies prepared another major offensive. This time, twenty divisions were added in the order of battle. The Germans fought with determination, but to no avail. Allied manpower and firepower proved too much. On the 18th of May, the monastery was captured and the Gustav line was routed at several points.

The battle had lasted more than four months.

There are four general factors which influenced Italys poor performance in World War II. Here are as follows 1) outdated weaponry and lack of a large military industrial complex, 2) poor leadership, 3) deprived willingness to fight, and 4) outdated military tactics.

Outdated Weaponry and the Lack of a Military Industrial Complex
After the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Italy was not ready for an offensive war. Mussolini, however, was desperate in redrawing the map of Europe and ignored the state of Italys military industrial complex. Italys industrial complex was not ready to produce guns, ammunition, planes, and trucks. At the beginning of the war, the Italian army was equipped with WWI weapons, far from the weaponry of either Germany or the Allies. For example, Italian artillery included a contingent of horse artillery. Newer models were available but never produced in large numbers. Modern tanks (like what the Germans used) were non-existent. The so-called Italian tank was nothing but a patrol tank. The Italian air force was composed of bi-planes used during the First World War. Italy simply lacked the industrial power to mass produce weapons.

Poor Leadership
Before the start of the war, Italy had some capable generals. When Mussolini took power, he filled the officer corps with men whose only qualification was loyalty to him. Italian ambition in Greece was shattered after the Italian army was defeated by the weaker Greek army. Italian invasions of Egypt and other British holdings failed. Toynbee observed that when poorly led Italian troops were under German forces, they fought better. Italian forces which participated in Operation Barbarossa fought well. Some Italian regiments like the Alpini and Voloire were legendary. In North Africa, Italians also fought well under General Erwin Rommel, also known as the Desert Fox.

Deprived Willingness to Fight
From the start, Italy was not interested in the war. When Mussolini announced Italys entry into the war, the public response was despair. Italian soldiers had no desire to fight an unwarranted war. The Italian attempt to conquer Greece was met with fierce resistance from a people who fought the Ottoman Turks for more than a century.

Outdated Military Tactics
Italian military theory was essentially based on trench warfare. The idea was fairly simple. It is possible for a well-entrenched lone machine gun post to resist a battalion of men. The function of tanks was limited to providing assistance to advancing infantrymen. The German invasion of Poland introduced a new concept in military science, the blitzkrieg or lightning war. The Italian High Command seemed not to be perplexed by the speed of the German invasion. Mussolini ordered the formation of armored division. However, at this time, Italy had no industrial capacity to mass produce new tanks.

In summary, the factors mentioned above accounted for Italys poor performance during the Second World War.

Until the last few years, Hollywood reinforced the view that the French Resistance was an effective undertaking on the part of the French to fight the Nazis. In the 1946 film La Bataile du rail, French railway workers sabotaged German reinforcement trains. In the 1950s, movies were less heroic than in the late 1940s. The 1956 film La Traversee de Paris portrayed the French black market as an important economic base of the French Resistance.

With de Gaulles return to power in 1958, the portrayal of the resistance returned to its earlier form. In the 1966 movie Is Paris Burning, the role of the French Resistance was revalued according to de Gaulles political standing. In successive films, the image of the Resistance was widened to include poor farmers and women. The films La Brigade (1975) and Le Dernier Metro reinforced the notion that the French Resistance was a powerful paramilitary organization. In 1997, Claude Berri produced Lucie Aubrac, an overt portrayal of a strong, mass-based French Resistance.

Hollywoods overt focus on the French Resistance is based on three general facts. First, de Gaulle had influenced the course of films which pertained to the French Resistance. De Gaulle overemphasized the value of the resistance in state-sponsored films. Indirectly, Hollywood adopted this mythic notion and transformed it into heroic movies.

Second, the economic value of these movies could not be ignored. French-inspired movies over the past 50 years earned more than 10 billion dollars. Lastly, the message of the French Resistance appealed to the ordinary mind. Hollywood had to adapt to the situation by reinforcing the traditional image of the Resistance.

According to Douglas Porch, the French Resistance did not help the Allied war effort (101). Porch noted that, contrary to popular belief, the French did not rise up after D-Day to attack Germans behind the front lines. The sabotage of Nazi supply and communication lines did little to influence the outcome of the war. He also added that only 5 of the French were nominally members of the underground movement. Of these, only a small portion ever fired a shot (107).

The German army knew nothing of the Resistance, apparently because it was virtually non-existent. The German commander in France did not take the activities of the Resistance seriously (103). During the D-Day, only 200 French resistance fighters joined the Allies in driving the Germans out of France. The six Resistance division that Eisenhower mentioned was nothing but an empty praise.

The Resistance legend was almost entirely the work of Charles de Gaulle, wartime leader of the Free French government in London, and of the French Communists. He needed to build up his otherwise weak position in the eyes of the allies.

The 17th century scientific and intellectual development, which included Isaac Newtons discoveries, and the empiricism of Rene Descartes together with that of John Locke, encouraged not only the principle of natural law and universal order but also human reason confidence which later spread to influence society as a whole in the 18th century (Cassirer 15894). There were many and varied currents of thought though some may be considered as pervade and dominant. A coherent and scientific approach to religious issues, social, political and economic issues encouraged a secular perspective of the world and a general sense of development and perfectibility. The philosophers were the major champions of these concepts and went ahead to popularize them to the general public. Proponents of the enlightenment shared particular basic attitudes. They were eager to discover and act upon principles that were governing humanity, society and faith. This they did with absolute faith in rationality.  It was common for them to attack scientific and spiritual authority as well as economic and social restraints. The state according to them was a rational instrument of progress. Deism was the result of the extreme rationalism and skepticism of the age hence the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, as it is known was born. The movement was centered in Europe and acquired international disposition at the cosmopolitan salon. All through Europe Masonic lodges played a crucial role in the dissemination of the new ideas. Among the first proponents of the Enlightenment in France were de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and other physiocrats.

The French revolution particularly represented the philosophy of Enlightenment through a brutal lens, and this was especially in the short dictatorship period of Jacobin. In addition to implementing changes in the legal system, monetary system as well as the measuring system into something rational, France desire for rationality in government eventually led to the attempt to do away with the Roman Catholic Church and in general Christianity. France also managed to take social and economic ideals further than any other state ever did.

According to Frey and Marsha (xiii) the French Revolution has been seen as the main difference between the prehistoric regime and the modern world, in short it has been seen as the dawn of the modern era. The French revolutionaries all had that perception in common as they perceived revolution as a break form the past where the past was done away with, the present put in place and the future consequently shaped. The authors note that the French revolution was caused by a number of events and not one or two as previously thought. Some like Alexis de Tocqueville however argued that the attempt by Louis XV and Louis XVI to implement reforms in the ancient regime led to its downfall. Upon their failure, France was swept by revolution. Many blamed the outbreak of the revolution to Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVII. Having reigned from 1643-1715, Louis XIV managed to weaken the nobility but somehow still left them strong in such a way that they could frustrate a weak king. On the other hand, neither Louis XV nor Louis VI was a strong leader. In the onset of the 18th century, the nobles were at it again. They became adamant in retaining and also getting back their old rights and privileges. In their quest, they blocked they restrained any social advancement for instance from not only joining the navy or army, but also from holding certain positions in the government. As the resurgence from the nobility grew, tension continued to rise and this made it even more difficult for the king to be able to enact meaningful reforms. In addition to this, Louis XIV left to his successors a country that was overwhelmed by debt due to the destructive engagement in several wars. More to this, the last of the wars, the War of the Spanish Succession had really ruined France (Frey and Marsha xiii).

But why of all places did a revolution have to take place in France in 1789 and no where else in Europe Rud poses this question having in mind the Belgium and Poland rebellion against the Australians which never succeeded (1). He also notes the attempted todays Holland political revolution by the patriots and the 1768 Geneva coup detat carried out by the city Burghers who modified the constitution balance in their favor.

Like all the rest, they did not also succeed. Rud notes that in none of these conflicts, was decisive victory achieved for a particular social group over the other. None was also in any way democratic as they were not able to transfer the weight of political influence to the state at large. This only happened in France. Other countries only followed in the wake of France revolutionary change. Rude acknowledges that the French revolution was the outcome a long as well as short term factors arising from the socio-political affairs and the ancient regimes conflicts. Among the long-standing complaints included the frustration of growing expectations among well to do peasants and bourgeoisie, government breakdown and insolvency, the spread of radical ideas among a variety of people, financial and economic crisis, and the consecutive triggers of state bankruptcy. All these factors were in one way or another involved in the revolution (10).

The historians however have been divided on this issue. Some tend consider the problems of the revolution in terms of politics and ideology, paying little or no attention to its economic and social foundations. Burke for instance never made attempt in trying to study the society where the revolution grew. According to his findings, the old system was in no way hostile. Only a few and minor adjustments were required to be added to it. The revolution he says was caused by the intrigues and aspirations of a few and was in no way an outcome of a general and honest desire for reform. The question however remained why was there a revolution in France, and the peasants, associated with poverty and backwardness were now becoming literate and at the same time owned one third of the land in France Compared to other nations, peasants were more oppressed that those in France but still no revolution was heard from those nations. The answer to this he states was as because those that belonged to the middle class were becoming wealthier by the day and were now more aware of their social importance, and since the peasants were not only prospering but also becoming free and literate that the older feudal survivals  as well as noble privileges appeared more intolerable. For a state to fall into a revolution, it must not necessarily be going from a bad to worse situation. The people, he states, having supported these oppressive laws all through, throw them out as soon as their load is lightened. For example, feudalism had not inspired the French with so much hatred at the height of its power than it did on the night it disappeared.

The legacy of the French revolution can be viewed in a positive and a negative perspective all together. Arnold (2008) states that Louis XVI regime came to its downfall because it was not able to form representative bodies through which the state could be in a position to execute the reform program. In short, the French government failed to adapt to its citizens desires to allow them to have more say in their government.

However, there were notable changes that took place in different and varied sectors after the revolution. For instance, Arnold states that one of the notable changes that took place after the revolution was the end of the feudal rule. This unfortunately for most French people did not change their lives (126). As Arnold explains, peasants paid their rent to rich landlords instead of paying it to lords of noble birth. In addition to this, Napoleon collected tax to finance new wars instead of imposing tax to rehabilitate and pay off war debts. The rural folks particularly gained very little from the revolution. Before the revolution, the Catholic Church owned huge chunks of land. The revolutionary government then forced the sale of church property and his brought about major wealth transfer. More saddening was that the people who bought these pieces of land were neither the poor nor the wealthy. They were the wealthy who owned large pieces of land already. The benefits that came with the transfer of wealth evaded the poor in the process. Arnold also notes that there was the emergence of two political ideologies after the French revolution which were conservatism and liberalism. Liberalism advocated that citizens by birth had certain rights and also had the right to influence their future. Conservatism on the other hand concentrated on preventing new revolutions. The two ideologies dominated the politics of Europe until the late nineteenth century. Another notable change according to Arnold was that of nationalism. There arose the sense of national identity where citizens felt they had a combination of rights and duties to the state in which they lived. The ancient sense of national identity where only rights of the rulers and duty by the citizens were emphasized was hence replaced.

I learn three things from the  High Priest Refusing Joachims Offering engraving  Passion for rediscovering Christendom and religious historical roots, Integrating religion and the arts, and Fusion of Medieval art and Biblical concepts.

Israhel van Meckenems engraving rekindles the passion for rediscovering Christendom through features of historical characters in the Christian Scripture. Meckenem features Joachim, the father of Virgin Mary in the traditional offering before the High Priest (Meckenem, 2010).

Israel customs are highlighted and given special honor in light with the existing power and influence of Christianity by Constantine I. The engraving tells the story of Joachim, who was forbidden to offer sacrifices because of his barrenness. The angel (Angel Gabriels wings resembles other Medieval Greek wings) told the grieving Joachim that his prayers and petitions were heard, and his wife Anna would conceive a child (Mary). The inclusion of dogs in the engraving suggests the humiliation and ridicule that Joachim suffered due to Israels view of curse among barren couples (Western Culture The Medieval West, 2009).

The engraving also integrates religion and the arts. The religious characters are portrayed and interpreted through tangible manifestation of art. The medium engraving enhances the meticulous clothing and sacred objects of Israel. The headpiece of the High Priest resembles and implies the colonial influence of Rome existing before Jesus birth. The engraving is an integration of faith executed precisely through arts. Belief in the sanctity of Virgin Marys birth and the explicit profession of it through engraving is impressive (Joachim and Anna, 2008).

The High Priest Refusing Joachims Offering is a prime example of the fusion of medieval art and Catholicism. The engraving projects resounding elements of classicism  using minimal variation of shades, while religiously exhibiting the story of Joachim. The High Priest Refusing Joachims Offering is successful in revealing the family background of Virgin Mary using engraving as a medium for immortalizing Christs roots (Medieval Art, 2010).

The High Priest Refusing Joachims Offering reveals a civilization that placed high value on religion, expressing its belief through arts. This object demonstrates how the Medieval Europe was heavily influenced by Christianity. The belief has entered philosophy and almost all facets of life. This object reflects a civilization that was willing to exert effort to know more about its faith and explore its possibilities into mainstream lifestyle.

This masterpiece exemplifies Medieval Europes passion for exhibiting Christian beliefs and integrating the best of engraving methods to project its allure for nobility and sanctity.