West European Studies

THE APLOLOGY
Who Brought Socrates to trial and on what charges
 
Three men brought Socrate to charge Anytus, Meletus and Lyon were the people who charged the Socrate. And they charged the Socrates because they did not believe in the official gods of the city but rather invented his own gods, and that he had corrupted the Athenian youth to believe as he did.

Socrates with calm defiance not only dealt with the charges but also used the trail as yet another opportunity to explain the truth seeking mission to which his life had been devoted.
         
He was also accused of being a sophist (a teacher of public speaking)

How did Socrates use the oracle of Apollo to demonstrate his innocence

Socrates used the oracle of Apollo he found out that the men most in repute were nearly the most foolish and that others less esteemed were nearly closer to wisdom.

How did Socrates answer the charge of irreligion
Socrates said that men are the wisest. That wisdom is in truth worth nothing and
He believes in one God who is above all nature that created the sun and moon.

Which of Socrates statements do you think served to turn the court against him
   
He stated that he will deal first with the old falsehoods that created the prejudice that are the real cause of the current charges against him.

Where are there are elements of arte in Socrates Speech Where are there elements of hubris in his self defense
     
There were elements of arte in his speech he was being interrupted by the noises
From the crowd, as he directly defies the citys power in stating that he will
Never alter his ways.

6. Describe Socrates View of virtue.     A man should look for wisdom first before he looks to his private interests and look to the state before he looks to the interest of the state and that this should be the order which he should observe.

7. What was the voice Socrates speaks of        This was the voice that has constantly been in the habit of opposing the Socrates
        even about trifles.
8.   How did Socrates understand death
      Socrates did not look at death as an evil thing he said that he has this conclusive
      Proof the customary sign would surely have opposed me had I been going to evil
      and not to be good.
      Socrates saw death as a good for one or two things either death is a state of
      nothingness and utter unconsciousness or as men say there is a change and
      migration of the soul from this world to another.

THE REPUBLIC
Who Would Rule the republic ( why)
Plato would rule the Republic.
     
Why  Because he had grown up in an atmosphere of war and revolution. In 404 B.C he had seen the discredited Athenian democracy go down in ruin at the end of the Peloponnesian war. He had looked to a government by chosen aristocrats to restore order and justice, only to be disillusioned by the incompetence of those installed.

What were the desired qualities for the Guardians How were they to be trained
The Guardians were authoritarian and their function was custodianship and not leadership. The guardians would work to preserve values, not only bring about change.

The Guardians must have intelligence and ability and also must look upon the common wealth as their special concern. The sort of concern that is fast for something so closely bound up with one self that its Interests and fortunes, for good or ill, are held to be identical with ones own.

The Guardians must be those men who are found to be full of Zeal to do whatever they believe is for good of the commonwealth and never willing to act against its interest.

How were they to be trained
They were suppose to watch them from earliest childhood and set them tasks in which they would be most likely to forget or to be guided out of this duty. Then later choose only those whose memory holds firm and who proof against delusion.

They were to subject them to ordeals of toil and pain and watch them. They were to be brought into terrifying situations and then into scenes of pleasure, which will put them severe proof than Gold tried in the furnace.

3. Describe the role and status of women in the republic
Women in the republic were considered the weaker sex in the republic. One
woman was fitted by nature to be a guardian because of the qualities which were needed to be a guardian in the republic. Women in the republic were selected according to the duties of Guardian of the men of the same type, since they are competent and of a like nature.

The wives of the Guardians were suppose to strip for exercise since they will be clothed with virtue and they must take their share in war and in other social duties of guardianship.

They are to have no other occupation and in these duties the lighter part must fall to women, because of the weakness of their sex.

Explain the allegory of the cave.
This was a parable that defines how the cave looks like Men who were to live in a cave in a sort of cavernous character chamber underground with an entrance open to the light and a long passage all down the cave. Now here they have been from childhood, chained by the leg and also by the neck, so that they cannot move and can see only what is in front of them because the chains will not let them turn their heads. At some distance Higher up is the light of a fire burning behind them and between the prisoners and the fire is a track with a parapet built along it, like the screen at a puppet show which hides the performance while they show their puppet over the top.

ETHICS
1. Definition of the Good.         The Good can be well defined as the good is that at which everything aims.

2. What is Aristotles definition of the Good
According to Aristotles definition of the good can be said is that every art  and  every kind of Inquiry, and likewise every art and every kind of inquiry and likewise every act and purpose, seems to aim at some good, but a difference is observable among these aims or ends. What is aimed at is sometimes the exercise of a faculty, sometimes a certain result beyond the act there the result is better than the exercise of the faculty.
   
What examples of this are offered
Health is the end of medicine
Ships for Shipbuilding
Victory of the art of war
Wealth of economy
Art of war
The art of horsemanship
Making of bridles
Rhetoric
In Building a house

C) In what ways is this system hierarchical     The system  of good is well hierarchical in politics because it prescribes which of the sciences a state needs, and which each man shall study and up to what point and to it we see subordinated even the highest arts such as economy, rhetoric and the art of war.

Even Though this good is the same for the individual and the state, yet the good of state seems a grander more perfect thing both to attain and secure and glad as one would be to do this service for a single individual to do it for a people and for a number of states is nobler and more divine.

2. ACTING IN ACCORDANCE WITH REASON         a. How did Aristotle prove that happiness is the best thing in the world
 
Aristotle has proved that happiness is the best thing in the world because for we always choose it for itself, and never for the sake of something else.

And further happiness is believed to be the most desirable thing in the world and that not merely as among other good things so that other things could be added to it. It is plain that the addition of the least of other goods must make it more desirable.

So happiness is something final and self- sufficient and is the end of all that man does.
b. Describe Aristotles view of the two sides of rational nature in humans.     According to Aristotles view of rational nature is that humans have a function to do, may be in carving, cobbler or business and they must do it to the best in order for them to progress in life and that function he has not be assigned by nature to do it. Besides that man has some functions that is above all these and that is life and that is what man has in common with plants but the difference is that man does not need growth and nutrition.

Another difference is that a man has been given the life of sense and the man shares it with horses and cattle and all kinds of animals.

c) What is meant by the good of man       The good of man is exercise of his facilities in accordance with excellence or virtue or if there be more than one, in accordance with the best and most complete virtue.

HAPPINESS AND THE CHANGE OF FORTUNE
a. Explain Aristotle prove that happiness is the best thing in the world
A happy man is well described or should have the following characteristics
       
Property of performance and all through life will preserve his character for he will be occupied continually, or with the least possible interruptions in excellent deeds and excellent speculations and whatever his fortune be, he will take it in the noblest function and bear himself always and in all things suitably, since he is truly good four square without a flaw.

A happy man is one who exercises his facilities in accordance with perfect excellence, being duly furnished with external goods, not for any chance time, but for a full term of years to which perhaps we should add, and who shall continue to live so and shall die as he lived, since the future is veiled to us, but happiness we take to be the end and in all ways perfectly final or complete.

4.  What was the reason for this inquiry
In order to become good, for otherwise it would profit us nothing.

b) How did Aristotle view excess
In the case of strength Aristotle view excess as, too much and too little exercise
alike destroy strength and take too much meat and drink, or to take too little, is
equally ruinous to health, but the fitting amount produces and increases and
preserves them.

VIRTUE AND VIRTUOUS ACTION
a) Why are the moral Virtues 1Q analogous to the arts
Moral virtues are analogous to the arts a man must be in a certain state of mind
when he is doing something. He must know what he is doing.
He must choose it for itself.
His act must be the expression of a formed and stable character.
of all this conditions only one is important knowledge is necessary for the
possession of any art but for the possession of the virtues knowledge is of little or no avail.

b) How does one become just and Virtuous
By doing what is just a man becomes just, and temperate by doing what is temperate without doing this he has no chances of ever becoming good.

MORAL VIRTUE THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN
a. What is Aristotles definition of virtue

Virtues are habits or practiced traits of character. It is also a trait of character.
Virtue then is a habit or practiced trait of choice, the characteristics of which lies in observing the mean relatively to the persons concerned and which is guided by reason that is by the judgment of the prudent man.
   
b. What is meant by the mean In what way is the mean related to Virtue
Mean is amount or one that lies between excess and deficiency.
The mean is related to the virtue in this way if ten pounds of food is too much for
a given man to eat, and two pounds too little, it does not follow that the trainer will
order him six ponds, and so we may say generally that a master in any art avoids
what is too much and what is too little and seeks for the mean and chooses it not the
absolute but the relative mean.
   
Every art or science perfects its work by looking at the mean and bringing
Its work up to this standard so virtue therefore, since like nature it is more
Exact and better than any art, must also aim at the mean virtue of course meaning
moral virtue of excellence for it has to do with passions and actions.
As a holding middle position between two vices, one on the side of excess and
other on the side of deficiency.

As aiming at the mean or moderate amount both in feeling and action

c) Why did Aristotle say its hard to be good      Because it is hard to find the middle or the mean it is hard, just as finding the
middle or centre of a circle is a thing that is not within the power of everybody but
only him who has the requisite knowledge. Also anyone can give money away
or spend it, but do these things to the right person to the extent, at the right
manner, is not what everybody can do and is by no means easy.

7. HIGHMINDEDNESS GREATNESS OF THE SOUL
a. What is the greatest of all external good
Honour
b. How does one become high minded What are the characteristics of the high-       minded person
By being wealthy and having power.
           
Characteristics of the high minded
1. He claims much and deserves much
2. He occupies an extreme position
3. He must be a perfectly good or excellent man.
4. He runs along swinging his arms and commits injustice.
5. He is not quick to run into petty dangers and indeed does not love danger,
        since there are few things that he much values.
6. He is never reluctant to ask for favour.
7. He loves to posses beautiful things that bring no profit, rather than useful
       things that pay.
8. His walk should be slow, his voice deep, his speech measured.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY
1. What social functions did Jesus Perform
Jesus was teaching in the synagogues and preaching the gospel of the
Kingdom
He was healing every disease and every infirmity among the people.

2. Describe the relationship between the teachings of Jesus and the Hebrew
Bible
Many of Jesus sayings are in fact quotations or adaptations of the older
Hebrew Scriptures. So the Hebrew bible is often described as the essence of
Christian ethical teaching. The sermons delivery on a mountain suggest
Jesus relationship to the Law of Moses, delivered on Mount Sinai.

3. What kind of reward is offered to the faithful
Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake for theirs is the      kingdom of heaven.

4. What advice is offered to litigants
That you shall not kill and whoever kills shall be liable to judgment. But I say to you that everyone who is angry with his brother shall be liable to the council and whoever says, you fool shall be liable to the hell of fire.

5. Describe Jesus attitude to women, Marriage and Divorce
Jesus said You have heard that it was said, You shall not commit adultery.     But anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery     with her in his heart.
 
Jesus also said that whoever divorces his wife, let him give her a certificate of divorce and he also stated that but i say to you that every one who divorces his wife except on the ground of unchasity, makes her an adulteress and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery.

6. How and why is perfection to attained
Perfection can be attained by if ones does bad to you you can forgive him and just  
know that God is watching him or her like.
   
You have heard that it was said, An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. But I
say to you, Do not resist one who is evil. But if any one strikes you on the right
chick, turn to him the other also and if any one would sue you and take your coat,
let him have your cloak as well and if any one forces you to go one mile, go with
him two miles. You shall love your neigbour and hate your enemy. But I say to
you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be
sons of your father who is in heaven for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on
the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust. Therefore we must be
perfect and this is how it is attained.

7.  What is the role of charity in society
-  Helping the poor in the society.
-  They normally prevent and relive poverty
-  They save lives and provide health care
-  They promote arts, science and culture a.
 - They provide education to the disadvantaged people.

8. What innovation in prayer is introduced Why
When you pray do not pray like the hypocrites for they love to stand and pray in the
synagogues and at the street corners, that they may be seen by men. And they
received their reward.

Why When you are praying you should go into your room and shut the door and
pray to your father who is in secret and your father who sees in secret will reward
you and do not heap up empty phrases as the gentiles do for they think that they
will be heard for their many words.
     
9. Why is forgiveness so important
For if you forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly father also will forgive you,
but if you do not forgive men their trespasses neither will you father forgive your
trespasses.

10. What is the altitude towards material things
You should not lay up yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust consume
and where thieves break in and steal, but lay up for yourselves treasure in heaven,
where neither moth nor  rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal for where your treasure is, there will also be your heart.

11. How can one judge a true prophet from a false one
True prophets are those who are ready to serve the God and can give gifts to the poor and preach the word of God and Preach what the lord said.

False prophets are the ones who come to you in sheeps clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves and you will know them by their fruits. So every sound tree bears good fruit, but the bad tree bears evil fruits. A sound tree cannot bear evil fruit, nor can a bad tree bear good fruit. Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.

12.   Is salvation granted to all How can it be assured
Not everyone is granted salvation and not everyone who says to me lord, Lord     shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but who does the will of my father who is in heaven.

It can be measured- one who hears the word of God and does them, he will be a wise man who built his house upon the rock and the rain fell, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon that house, but it did not fall, because it had been founded on the rock. And everyone who hears these words of mine and does not do them will be like a foolish man who built his house upon the sand, and the rain fell and the floods came and the winds blew and beat against that house and it fell.

9. THE ACT OF THE APOSTLES
1. Describe the ways in which events are compared with Old Testament precedents.
The books talks about the way Jesus began to do and teach, until the day when he was taken up, after he had given commandment through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had given commandment through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. This book traces the story of the Christian movement from the resurrection of Jesus to the time when the apostle Paul, as a prisoner first traveled to Rome.

2.  What explanation or interpretation is given to the unusual events
That Jesus is the messiah and is calling people to join into the kingdom of the Lord.
3.   How is the argument that Jesus is the Christ presented and defended
The argument is presented this way
     
Men of Israel hear the words, Jesus of Nazareth, a man attested to you by God with mighty works and wonders and signs which God did through him in your midst, as you yourselves know this Jesus, delivered  up according to the definite plan and fore knowledge of God, You crucified and killed by the hands of lawless men.

Jesus died and he rose up and that Jesus was not only the Christ the messiah (anointed saviour who will rule Israel on earth) but also the heavenly Lord.

4. In what ways is the conversion of Saul similar to stories from the old
testament In what ways is the story new
       
The conversion of Saul is similar to the Old is similar to the old testament in that
Saul was told by Jesus to not to persecute him and that he should enter the city and
     
He was to be told what to do. And that he was blind for three days and he stayed
For three days without eating.
The story is new because Saul was able to come to the kingdom of God
     
Immeadetly
He saw the power and strength of Jesus. He was no able to be baptized and took  
 food and was strengthened and later started accompanying  the disciples at Damascus and in the synagogues immediately he proclaimed Jesus, saying  he is the son of God.

PAUL LETTER TO THE CORINTHIANS
What is Pauls attitude towards women and marriage
Concerning women Paul says it is well for a man not to touch a woman. But because of the temptation to immorality each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband. The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. The wife does not rule over his own body, but the husband does, likewise the husband. Do not refuse one another except perhaps by agreement for a season that you may devote yourselves to prayer.

To the unmarried and the widow I say that it is well for them to remain single as I do. But if they cannot exercise self control, they should marry.

To the married I give charge, not I but the lord that the wife should not separate from her husband, but If she does, let her remain single or else be reconciled to her husband and that the husband and that the husband should not divorce his wife.

In the Lords supper section Paul addresses budding problems in church  
organizations and community divisions describe.

The budding problems that Paul addresses in the church are the divisions that exist among the churches members and rivalry cliques, among the churches differences that emerge in the church meets together it is not the Lords supper that they eat and drink.

Paul says that worshipping of Idols is forbidden by the Lord, Idols are nothing to God so worshipping idols is a crime to Jesus Christ.

3. What is the role of love in the Christian view, according to Paul
That love is patient and kind, Love is not jealous or boastful it is not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on its own way. It is not irritable or resentful. It does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right. Love bears all things, believes all things hopes all things endures all things. Love never ends as for prophecies, they will pass away.

4. What is the Christian view of the afterlife as described by Paul      Christian should believe and preach that there is resurrection of the dead and they should have faith when they are preaching about resurrection of Christ.

Describe the relationship between Christ and Adam.
Adam was the first man on earth and he became a living being, the last Adam became a life giving spirit, but it is not the spiritual which is first but the physical and then the spiritual. The first man was from the earth a man of dust and the second man is from heaven.

What is Pauls concept of the Saul
Is that flesh and blood cannot inherit the Kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable and that death is swallowed up in victory.

LETTER TO THE ROMANS
1. What important topics does Paul discuss in his appeal to the Jews
Salutation
God is for every person, without partiality
Salvation through faith alone
Justification through faith by Gods Grace
The Lords supper
Life after death

2. How does Paul reconcile the new doctrines with the Old
He reconciles the new doctrines from the old by referring to the different scriptures of the Old and new.

WEST DOCUMENTS

WEST 1
Where there natural geographic boundaries for Romans empire
No.
How Might a societys concern to maintain order affect the work of its artists and intellectuals
If there is no peace or good atmosphere or working conditions for the artist then the work that they were to accomplish will never be complete because of the lack of good working conditions.

What portions of Romes frontier were most vulnerable to attack
They were some of the Land Trajan had won were too difficult to defend and therefore decided to relinquish it.

WEST 2
Why were all the empires administrative centers (Trier, Milian, Sirmium and Nicomedia) on its northern rim rather than in a central location

Because in the Northern side there was a sea nearby and the only economical means for transporting goods was water. So shipping became easier and very quick.

Because the frontier that needed the largest military investment was the northern line defined by the Rhine and Darute rivers. Communication, Travel and trade for the people who lived within this boundaries facilitated the empires numerous rivers and its great central sea.

Why was the Roma Republic unable to govern an empire
Because the roman Empires resource barely sufficed to met its routine needs and crises caused by invasions, civil wars, plagues or crop failures could push it to the brink of collapse.

The empire was an agrarian state supported by fairly primitive methods of cultivation some plantations and manufacturing industries produced products for the world market but waterways provided the only cost-efficient transportation.

Did Augustus Save the roman republic or destroy it
Augustus destroyed the roman republic
How did the relationship between the military and the civilian elements in society change during the era of the empire

The relationship between the military and the civilian changed because the civilians the wealthier citizen fled its cities, where they where too exposed to the tax collectors and took up permanent residence on their rural estates.

Why might residents of the provinces and ordinary Romans have disagreed with the roman senate on which of Romes emperors were good and which bad

Because most regions could provide themselves with fundamental necessities   so that they could engage themselves in secure trade.

Could the Roman Empire have been saved Yes
Geography helped make Romes empire the ancient words largest and most enduring, a viable entity.

Is government by the people a luxury that one relatively secure societies can afford No
When the government failures to protect its citizen or resources people will have to migrate to secure places where they are very sure they can do good investment and work together.
                     
WEST 3
Edward Gibbon, an important British historian of the eighteenth century, said that the fall of the Roman Empire was brought about by the triumph of barbarism and religion. Is this a fair assessment of Romes decline

Yes. Like in the case of religion many were attracted to the empire in hopes of sharing the benefits of its civilization they came so quickly and in such numbers that the fragile, poorly government empire could not absorb them.

2. How did the eastern half of Romes empire come to differ from the west
why did the two have different fates The east came to differ from the west when their leader Alaric began to press Constantinople for new opportunities for his people. Why Because Milan the seat of the western empire, seemed too vulnerable to siege, so the court moved to Ravenna, a small port on the adnatic.

3. How does Jesus career compare with Muhammad      
Muhammad converted many to Christianity and preached what is good just as Jesus did. Muhammad insisted that the rich had a duty to care for the poor and Jesus also said that the poor must be taken good care by the rich. Just like Jesus Muhammad had no taste at all for wealth or luxury and lived so frugally. Muhammad had come to spread the word of God Just like Jesus did.

How does Christianity compare with Islam How is the church different
From the umma

The church is different from the umma because the members of umma are bound by faith and not blood while the members of the church are bound by faith and blood.

Both claim Hebraic ancestry. Both are monotheistic. Many of the individuals who appear in the bible are also found in the Quran.

More is even said about Christian figures (Jesus mother, the Virgin Mary, for
 example) in the Quran than in the New Testament.

The Quaran praises Jesus as a highly respected prophet. It affirms his virgin
birth (but not his role as an incarnation of God) and describes him performing
some miracles that are not mentioned in the bible.

Why did Religion became the most powerful cultural influence shaping
western societies in the early middle ages

It is because the main responsibility for protecting and policing the society within which the church operated belonged to Romes secular government and that the church could confine itself to a narrowly defined religious mission.

Kings and popes sometimes disagreed as to which powers belonged to which    leader, but the church and state were different entities.
Are Islam and Christianity both western religious
Yes. Because they had the power to levy taxes to support charitable works.

7.  Did geography pose different challenges for the defenders of the eastern and  
western halves of Romes empire Yes.

Given that priestesses were common in the ancient world, why did female
religious leadership decline when the medieval west embraced Christianity and Islam

Because Muhammad had insisted that there would be no more prophets after him, and he said nothing about choosing a new leader for Umma

Given that Islam originated on the periphery of the Roman Empire and
Muslims claimed much of Romes former territory was the Islamic empire a western empire
Yes.

WEST 4

When did the Northern provinces of the Roman Empire cease to be roman and become European What changes mark the transition between the two eras
     
Louis was a well educated man who had he not been destined for a throne,   probably would have chosen a life in the church in childhood he had been  dispatched to the French region of Aquailaine to serve as its titular king. Raised  under the tutelage of a monk, he became a sober man who was appalled by the        moral laxity of his fathers court. One of his first act upon becoming emperor     was to purge the court of everyone (including his sisters) whose conduct was     not up to his strict standards. He believed that the church was also in need of       reform, but was overly deferential to his clerical advisors. When his vassals  realized that their Lord was as weak- willed as he pious, they began to take    liberties. His own sons ultimately turned on him and one another. After Louis died in 840, his three serving sons fought for another three years before agreeing to a settlement of their fathers Europes major nations. In 1843
 
The treaty of Verdun, which ended their war, foreshadowed the emergence of Europes major nations.

Changes
The youngest of Louiss sons, Charles the Bald, became king of western francia.

His brother, Louis the German, got the empires eastern territories and the oldest of the three princes, lothair, claimed the imperial title and a long, narrow kingdom that ran between his brothers realms from the North Sea down the Rhineland to Italy. The new kingdoms represented regions that were already evolving separate ethnic cultures. Evidence for this is preserved in a chronicle that describes a meeting between Louis and Charles at Strasbourg in 842. Each swore on earth in a tongue that the others followers could understand and the text of Louis oath is the specimen of a romance language

What do the careers of Brunhild and fredegund suggest about the roles that other less well documented aristocratic women may have played in medieval politics

Women were very visible figures and had great power. They has the passion and zeal of leadership to the extend of killing other men so that they could reign power.

Does Geography work for or against the formation of a continental European state Geography works for a formation of a continental European.

What challenges did geography pose for the defense of the European continent
1. Poor communication  
2. Political fragmentation
3. Tradition and customs

How did the problems that brought down the Merovingian dynasty differ from the problems that caused the fall of Romes dynasties

Merovingian downfall was caused by rivalry between Austiasia and Newstisia where Queen brunhild of Austiasia and queen fredegund of neustiasias was characterized by fredgund was against each other, using their kings.

The carolingzan downfall was due to misunderstanding between the kingship and Christianity. After the line of western emperors cased in 476, the Bishops of Rome looked to the eastern emperors for protection. Byzantine emperors and popes quarreled over doctrine, and the military assistance that Constantinople could offer Rome steadily diminished as Lombards moved into the Italy. In seventh century some popes had courted Frankish rulers in the hopes of winning their help but the franks were reluctant to be dawn into war with the Lombards. In 751 Lombards conquered Ravenna, constantineples major base in haly, and the danger they posed to Rome increased. Papin was reluctant to fight the Lombards because his two daughters were married to them, but he finally took his army to Italy, drove the Lombards back from Rome, and ceded the lands that he liberated to the pope.

How did Charlemagnes empire differ from the realm of the Roman   emperors whose title he claimed
Because he came to control most of the Western Europe. Most of Charlemagne were aimed at winning German territory. He focused on unifying Eastern Europe. His leadership was characterized by military conquests leading to the expansion of his territory.

At times, he is also seen to negotiate with other leaders such as Constantinople rather than forcing his way. He was a deunting man who could physically intimidate his subordinates or seduce then with gifts, as the situation warranted.

Why were medievial Europeans unable to sustain progress toward a continental empire
Because after Louis died in 840 his three successors his son, fought one another for three years before agreeing to a settlement of their father estate. The treaty of verdum, which ended their was, foreshadowed the emergence of Europes majors nations. This was due to division of the empire into three parts I.e. Western francia, Eastern territories and North Sea down the Rhveland to Italy. The latter kingdom was divided among lothairs heirs and eventually disappeared and invasion also let to further flagmentation and lapse of the emperor. The Vikings attacked them from the north, while Muslims renewed their attacks from the south. The aghlabids began conquest of Sicily. Which was still Byzantine territory. The Carolingian states were poorly equipped to conter simultaneous attacks on multiple fronts, for they had little infrastructure to support on multiple fronts, for they had division and attacks distressed progress towards a continental empire.

How did Europeans adapt politically and economically to the Carolingian empire and its decline
The Carolingian empire affected the Europeans both politically and economically, the minting of coins dwindled drastically following the decline of the Roman Empire, and there was little money in circulation. Therefore, yulas in early medieval Europe did not collect most of their taxes in coin and pay their official salaries from a public treasury. Agriculture was practiced in dry soil of Middle East and the Mediterranean shores, the methods used did not translate well to northern Europe farmers in France, Britain and Germany had to contred with heavy, wet soil and short growing seasons. In the south where the ground was easy to break up a simple sketch plow was used while in the Northern Europeans fields a much heavier animal deawn wheeled plow was used.

Medivial farmers developed new methods as well as new tools to enhance their productivity. Fertilizers were used to maintain fertility in the field follow was used so that can rested for season, land was divided into thirds and each planted at a different time this reduced non productive plowing medieval peasant farmers lived on manors and that many owned property outright.
 
Politically land paid his vessals by giving them the use of fiefs once a vessal had fiet in his possession however it was hard for his land to reclaim it. If the vessel had an heir who could perform the tasks for with his fiet had been granted, the easiest thing was to pass it to him. A fiefs purpose was to support a soldiers. If the land was a minor, the lord obtained by making the boy the ward of a man who could provide knight service for him.

If the heir was a female, the lord could require has to marry a man of her choice. If the family died out fief returned to the lord who originally granted, Medieval political and social arrangements had deep roots in the Roman and German posts                  

How did the civilization of early medieval differ from the classical civilization of the ancient Greeks and Romans Was it at all similar

Civilization of early medieval Europe differed from classical civilization of the ancient Greeks and Romans, activities. These activities included building of monasteries where people were taught so as to get a formal education. This was because the church was in a particularly lamentable condition, for many clergy were illiterate, village priests were often peasants without formal education. Monesteies and   cathedoals were ordered to establish schools and the objective was to rescue literacy so that Europeans could access the intellectual legacy of the ancient world. An educational curriculum divided into seven liberal acts was designed. It reformed the liturgy of the church by building on Roman customs that it believed went back to the generation of pope.

Geigory the Great. He integiated information from their tribal oral traditions with classicism literary legacy and their understanding of the Christian faith. Early medieval was neither characterized by literacy nor Christianity.

Civilization of early medieval Europe and classical civilization of the ancient Greeks and Romans cannot be said be said to be similar.

Joyce Tyldesley is the member of the Honorary Research group at the Liverpool University School of Archeology, Classics, and Oriental Studies (Penguin Books). The author of numerous books, Tyldesley is lecturer on Egyptian archeology and a freelance writer (Penguin Books). Tyldesley has extensive practical excavation experience and participates in several television projects as a consultant. She lives in Lancashire and is married to a famous Egyptologist Steven Snape (Penguin Books). Cleopatra Last Queen of Egypt is only one of numerous Tyldesleys books others include Nefertiti Egypts Sun Queen, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Egypt, and others (Penguin Books).

That every book has one or several definite purposes is difficult to deny. Tyldesleys book is not an exception. In Cleopatra Last Queen of Egypt, the author seeks to close the existing knowledge gap. The fact is in that despite Cleopatras popularity, professional Egyptologists ignore her figure and the role she played in the history of Egypt (2). More often than not, the studies of Egypt are confined to the dynasties preceding the arrival of Alexander (Tyldesley 2). Tyldesley justifies regular negligence toward the Ptolemies by the fact that they were foreigners in Egypt (3). Yet, she is confident that placing the Ptolemies in a historical and cultural ghetto is both irrational and wrong (3). Tyldesley recognizes the lack of evidence regarding the life of Cleopatra and wants to break the long-standing tradition of discussing history through the prism of nations and not personalities. The aim of Tyldesleys book is to provide historical and archeological evidence that underpins Cleopatras story and creates a comprehensible picture of her life.

Tyldesley does not have any clear thesis, nor does she try to defend one single point of view. Rather, the author performs a step-by-step analysis of Cleopatras life. She begins her story with the events that preceded Cleopatras becoming the princess of Egypt  the death of Ptolemy and his bride, Egypts search for a new queen, and the life in Egypt just before Cleopatra became the princess of Egypt (15). Tyldesley then proceeds to the discussion of Cleopatras ruling and the political and cultural implications of her leadership. Tyldesleys book is not Cleopatras biography in a traditional sense of word but is a compilation of stories which discuss several different stages of Cleopatras life. These include Cleopatras relations with Julius Caesar, the role of Mark Antony in Cleopatras life, as well as Cleopatras children. Tyldesley tries to systematize the current knowledge about Cleopatra. She does not pursue the biographical sequence of events but wants to educate readers about the most problematic and the least known aspects of Cleopatras political and personal life.

Tyldesley tries her best to be objective in her historical and personal judgments. First, Tyldesley recognizes the lack of archeological evidence for Cleopatras reign  such evidence either sank in the Mediterranean Sea or was buried beneath modern buildings (5).  Second, Tyldesley admits that she cannot familiarize herself with Cleopatras writings, because Cleopatra rarely engaged in handwriting and one cannot read Cleopatras own version of events (6). Finally, Tyldesley suggests that writing a conventional biography of Cleopatra is virtually impossible because too many details are missing (7). The author uses a variety of primary resources and briefly evaluates them for example, the Tyldesley does not think that Herodotus description of Egypt before Cleopatra is an infallible source (17). Herodotus, according to Tyldesley, was culturally anti-Persian, pro-Greek, and pro-Egyptian  as a result, his judgments about Egypt bordered on subjectivity and exaggeration (17). In a similar vein, Tyldesley evaluates and criticizes other primary sources.

Tyldesley provides an extensive list of sources at the end of her book. The list of references is well-structured and systematized along the two major categories classical readings and further reading. Classical texts include those written by Athenaeus, Julius Caesar, Cassius Dio, Herodotus, Plutarch and Virgil. The list of further (recommended) readings covers the resources which do not appear within the body of the book but which readers can use to improve their knowledge about Cleopatra. The list of recommended readings includes modern sources of information about Cleopatra and the queens of Egypt.

The most important aspect of the book is in that Tyldesley tries to reconsider Cleopatras personality in a new, more advantageous light without distorting the historical evidence. Tyldesley tries to persuade the reader that Cleopatra was an extremely strong and unbelievably powerful woman. Throughout history, Cleopatra was regularly judged for her choices and decisions, while her beauty turned into a legend. Tyldesley tries to argue the established attitudes toward Cleopatra and equips readers with a better understanding of primary resources which described Cleopatra and her life (4). The reader is left alone to judge Cleopatras actions through the prism of the historical conditions in which she was bound to live. Tyldesley simply puts Cleopatra back into her own social and historical context. She does not deny or reduce the biases that are characteristic of the primary sources and thus makes the book even more challenging.

I would recommend this book for several reasons. First, everything about Cleopatra is always interesting and new. Second, that Tyldesley is a professional historian  archeologist and relies on primary resources adds relevance and objectivity to her book. Third, Tyldesley does not impose her personal opinion on readers but lets them change their views on Cleopatra, based on what they find in primary sources. Finally, the book is easy to read and centers on the most problematic aspects of Cleopatras life  this information is extremely useful to those who want to explore the history of Egypt in more detail.

Westpolitik is a term that describes the foreign policy that was adopted by Germany in the late 1890s. The sole intention of this policy was designed to make German a leading power as it sought to expand, strengthen itself and a raise a formidable empire that would rival those that already existed. The policy demonstrated the aggressive approach that the Germans wanted to implement.  This aggressive nature resulted in friction with other nations. The policy sought two major developments one was the expansion of the German colonies and the second was the development of a large High Seas Fleet.

The results of this policy have been said to range from the World War I, formation of the Great Power Diplomacy and its subsequent crisis, formation of alliances, Treaty signing, Military developments, isolations and encircling of German, government and constitutional changes as well as dynamic foreign policies adoption by various nations.

Westpolitik describes the Germanys foreign policy adopted with intentions to make Germany an expansive, strong and a formidable empire in several fronts in 1897. To many, this policy was seen as a precipitating factor towards the World War I. The aggressiveness exhibited by this foreign policy indeed rattled many powerful nations. Prior to this the Germans had adopted realpolitik which emphasized on diplomacy based on practical and real scenarios rather than on ideological approaches. The then foreign minister, Bernhard von Blow openly stated that Germany was implementing it. Parliamentary proceedings of December the 6th 1897, Bernhard stated that we do not want to place anyone into the shadow, but we also claim our place in the sun. 1 Kaiser Wilhelm II initiated this policy in 1888 after the death of Wilhelm I. This radical shift in Germans foreign policy was in contrast with the opinion that had been held by Bismarck and Kasier Wilhelm I, who had widely held to the belief that Germany was a European giant with goals and objectives cutting across the entire European continent. Kaiser Wilhelm sought to make Germany a leading power with interest to the maritime and in the larger Europe.The Weltpolitik had two major dimensions. The first one was fast widening or expansion of German colonies in the world (colonization) and the second one was the development of a large navy to be at per with the France, US, Russia and the Japanese navies. The colonization policy had already been started by Bismarck and it led to Germany becoming the third largest colonial empire. The enactment of the 1898 Navy Law ushered in the dawn to threaten the British Empire.

This policy had with it various repercussions all-over Europe and the world in general. Namely, one of its effects was the destabilization of the Great Power diplomacy. Its aggressive nature caused friction with other foreign nations and was closely linked with Great Power diplomatic crises prior to the First World War. 2. Its quest to have its place in the sun caused discomfort to other large empires. Understandably, it meant that German had adopted a policy geared towards making an industrial giant by creating its own colonial empire to compete with its rivals. This was to be achieved by the progressive development and expansion of it High Seas Fleet (navy) with sole aim to oust the rivals namely the British. This caused what was known as the Aglo-german naval race as each empire tried to outdo the other. At home in Europe, the British Empire felt that this policy threatened their existence.
This policy was seen by many as a result of nationalism, an ideology that had shaped the history of the Germans for many years. As efforts prior were directed towards achieving the unification of the West and the East German, in this new policy, all efforts and resources were directed towards building an international powerhouse with establishment of a colonial empire being seen as the most viable option.

Mit Erlaubnis des Reichskanzlers gesammelt und herausgegeben von Johannes Penzler Frst Blows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beitrgen zu seiner Politik.. I. Band 18971903. Berlin Georg Reimer, 1907. p. 6-8

Retrieved on 26th May 2010 from .httpwww.historyhome.co.ukeuropecauseww1.htm
This policy was seen by many as a result of nationalism, an ideology that had shaped the history of the Germans for many years. As efforts prior were directed towards achieving the unification of the West and the East German, in this new policy, all efforts and resources were directed towards building an international powerhouse with establishment of a colonial empire being seen as the most viable option. The doctrine of survival for the fittest blended with nationalism which had existed provoked the nation with its notion that the fittest were to survive and if a nation by then was weak, it would be destroyed or its bargaining power drastically reduced.


This policy thus resulted in nations entering into treaty with each other.
The creation of two divisions in Europe, (Triple entente and Central Powers)cleared demonstrated the intricate balance that was to be considered and it was seen as a time bomb in triggering a war should either two nations enter into a war. 3. This would immediately have resulted in the entrance by the other nations. This policy changed the stability mechanisms that had existed in Europe. This Entete comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to support each other if attacked by either Russia or France. This made France feel threatened and together with Britain which also felt the same, they signed the Entete Cordiale which majorly was to encourage them to face the threat. Later, France joined the force as it perceived the threat of the large German navy.

Military alliances were also seen as a result of this policy. Many nations, joining forces to counter perceived threats, came together with sole aim of countering the military threats of the other. This was an extension of the various treaties that were signed by the various national governments.

Various nations foreign policies shifted due to the Westpolitk policy. Nations which had policys of defense radically changed to policies of aggression. An example would be Russia, which had an aggressive approach in the Far East was geared towards countering the Japanese war with China. It was designed to further exploit and expand their empires. Nations sought this by being aggressive rather than being defensive. Noteworthy, is that, all the nations involved all employed aggressive and defensive approaches.

This policy led to nations coming out of isolations and saw the signing on new treaties.. Example was Britain. This was because the British interests were maritime and imperial with no need to join alliances. The ideology of the Germans made the British Empire to reconsider its policy and thus joined the already existed alliances with a common goal. Britain tried to enter into treaties with German as a diplomatic way to hold the threats being unleashed by the Germans. Some treaties were the Aglo-German treaty and the Aglo-German China treaty. Further, the British went ahead and signed many treaties with other nations namely, Japan, Russia and France.

Retrieved on 26th from
 httpusers.dickinson.edurhyne232SixTriple_Alliance_1882.html
Growing tensions due the Westpolitik policy led to shifting of foreign policies by different nations. The Germans being isolated. Shifting of alliances was witnessed and nations also changed their diplomacy. Defensive policy was adopted by nations that had prior been aggressive. Nations example Russia adopted diplomacy after defeat by the Japanese. They even entered into a treaty with the French with aim to defend each other in the case of a Germany attack. Tsar unlike the Kaiser, preferred a partial mobilization after the Australia declared war on Serbia. This was a different approach demonstrated by the Germans. Thus being offensive was being decided by the defensive capability of a nation. Nations sought to protect their interests.

The policy led to the centralization of the Habsburg monarchy (Austria-Hungary) the head normally was referred to as the Ruler of the Roman Empire. This was a defensive strategy geared towards power consolidation in the event of an attack. The centralization of this monarch was a direct result of the threat that was occasioned by the Germans. Austria and Hungary had co-operated in various fronts and this one was seen as strength in raising their defense against any external aggression.

This policy precipitated the World War 1.The objectives of the Westpolitik policy made nations to heighten their military and defensive capabilities in readiness for war. This was seen in the later during the occurrence of the World War 1. The German policy is seen by many historians as the precipitating factor that led to this First World War It is a war that involved the Great powers assembling in two different camps and lasted from 1914-1918. The Triple Entete and the Central power faced each other. Nearly 70 million military personnel with about 60 million Europeans were mobilized for this war. 4. This changed the spending that various Empires had adopted. Human and economic resources were threatened by this war. Key trade routes and key source of raw materials were a source of greater conflict as each side sought to win the battle. The assassination of the heir to the Austria-Hungary Monarch in 1914 was seen as the trigger for this war. But analysis of preceding factors would tell otherwise. Foreign policies of various Empires including the Germans, Russians and the Hungarians, definitely had a hand in this war.

The aftermath of the war led to radical changes in the composition of governments. Constitutional changes were witnessed in major nations with case example being Britain. The expansion of various governments powers and responsibilities was witnessed. Nations which now enjoyed this advantage included the USA, Britain, France and the Dominions of the British Empire. Resultant new ministries and centers of powers were created to harness their grip. 5

Stephen J. Lee Europe, 1890-1945. (n.d) retrieved on 26th May 2010 from thttpbooks.google.co.kebooksidRzb2gmOWGeECpgPA15lpgPA15dqGerman27sWeltpolitikeffectssourceblotsiLqdIEMV3CsiguA7Sz2hcOSergsKZ4s3o8zGJcXohleneifA39S8cEoJPiBuiFzKELsaXoibook_resultctresultresnum3ved0CCAQ6AEwAgvonepageqffalse
 Spencer Tucker Encyclopedia of world war . (n.d.). Retrieved on 26th May 2010, from httpbooks.google.combooksid2YqjfHLyyj8CpgPA273dqhlenvonepageqffalse

The taxes introduced during this period have remained even up to today. This is evident in the taxation regimes of various nations. Distinct changes were observed in the governance structures. Executive powers of governments were expanded and governments became active in the lives of people. Democratic government structures were put in place with strengthening of political parties in Britain.

The establishment of the Treaty of Versailles effectively made the Germans and its Allies accountable for all the damages and loss encountered during the war and subsequently provided a means for compensation. This treaty brought the foreign power shifting and also brought control over the Germans Westpolitik policy. The defeat in the war loudly, made the Germans to retreat on their aggressive policy. This burden is explained by many as to having led to the end of the Westpolitik era for the Germans. It paved way for the rise of Adolf Hitler.   It is stated that the Germans will finish paying the debt in 2010 while the rest will be paid in 2020. 6

Various views are held in debating whether the Germans really provoked the
War. This has led to doubts and suspicious treatment of the Germans even in the modern world. The German foreign policy has drastically shifted to one that is focused on the local scenario rather than the larger external nations. Its aggressive foreign policy approach has been shelved. German provided the Austria-Hungary with a blank cheque and encouraged the Serbia war. After Russian mobilization, German became the first to declare war. This subsequently led to war with France and the invasion of Belgium. This clearly shows that German was the ahead in provoking the retaliation that span into wide scale war.

When Europe first encountered the various native peoples, The Others, many saw them as being savages, a useful resource for the mother country and lacking religion. There were dissenters among the Europeans who looked deeper into the cultures they were exploring, finding intelligence and order. Others saw the eventual downfall and horrors that befell many of those who came in contact with the explorers.

When Columbus came to the islands of the Caribbean, he and his men saw a people that lived a life very different from their own. Two completely different value systems were present, one focused on land, wealth and expansion while the other was rounded in an established, organized simple life. Columbus made note of his perception of their appearance and life

The people of this island all go naked, men and women, as their mothers bore
them, although some of the women cover a single place with the leaf of a plant or with a net of cotton which they make for the purpose. They have no iron or steel or weapons, nor are they fit to use them.

But so they are, incurably timid (Columbus 1 of 3).

Columbus judges them by the standards of his own society, which values steel
weaponry, money and possessions. His specific reference to their nakedness puts them on the level of savages (Columbus 1 of 3). The Europeans, in meeting these peoples, also assumed that sharing possessions and items from Europe would be welcomed by the natives, again assuming that they would have similar desires and needs. As described by the Nzinga Mbemba, King of the Kongo, the abundance of new items caused incredible dissention among the groups that had once been peaceful

Your factors and officials give to the men and merchants that come to this

Kingdomand spreadso that many vassals owing us obediencerebel because
they have more goods through trade with Portugese than us, who before had been content and subject to ourjurisdiction, which causes great damage (Letters
2 of 2)

The lack of contact with other cultures during a long period of European isolation led them to have little background information about other cultures far from home. They grounded their viewpoints and eventual reactions based on their societys norms, beliefs and customs. There were dissenters to this opinion, and saw the underside of the people that they met. Pedro Cieza de Leon, a soldier, saw the Incans from a varying perspective

It should be well understood that great prudence was needed to enable these kings
to govern such large provinces, extending over so vast a region

One of the things which I admired most, in contemplating and noting down the affairs of this kingdom, was to think how and in what manner they can have made such grand and admirable roads as we now see, (Ciez de Leon 1 of 2)

His perspective is very different from that of Columbus and the Spanish leadership, but shows the varying levels that the Europeans would look at when meeting a new people. Some saw the savage others saw depth and intelligence with an appreciation for the larger picture.

This  savage viewpoint bled into the European perspective that these savage people and their land could be a useful resource for the exploring country. Columbus goes into great detail about the various advantages of the islands and their mining possibility. He also simply takes possession of a town for the king and queen for the purpose of making the most efficient use of them (Columbus, 2 of 2).

This usefulness, as noted by Friar Bartoleme de Las Casas, as a resource was taken to the point of enslavement of the native peoples to work in mines and other tasks. In this case, the Spanish used the people and the land for their own purposes (Bartoleme 1 of 3). The people were just another piece of the process to obtain the desired wealth. Seen as lower or lacking in the same societal values and norms, there was a misrepresentation of native peoples status as equals.

One noted aspect that they felt was lacking in the natives lives was a proper understanding and life of Christianity. Columbus describes the people of the islands that he landed on as having no idols and a belief in heaven as the center of strength and goodness. But as the same time, he makes a very interesting statement and were very firmly convinced that I, with these ships and men, came from the heavens (Columbus 2 of 3)

Here again he sets them on a lower level, though he does acknowledge their intelligence and sailing ability. In addition, he felt that by giving them material objects he would endear them to the explorers and open their minds to being indoctrinated with Christianity. There is no in-depth exploration of any belief system that they already have, only a cursory level examination of what is barely known and seen (Columbus 2 of 3).

Nzinga Mbemba, the King of the Kongo even converted and became Christian when the Spanish came to the Incase. He argued that the Spanish were using methods that were outlawed in their own religion

In teaching the word of Our Lord these bad priests become bad examples and
so take the key to the Celestial Kingdom that is the Doctrine of our Holy Catholic
Faith, to open the hearts of our simple peopleand by entering into a life of sin
take the key to Helldue to the greed of this world, do not merely take their own
bodies and souls to Hell, but guide those blind with them through their bad
examples (Letters 2 of 2).

His viewpoint clearly shows the gulf between what the Europeans taught and the reality of what they practiced in many circumstances.

Friar Bartolome also points out this disjunction of status and abuse of religion on the part of the Spanish with the Incans, as he chastises the Spanish in his sermon for not recognizing that they people they conquered were human and rational as they were, but were not treated as so. The European viewpoint that there was a need to teach the natives Christianity and convert them by force, if necessary, went against the basic teachings that they were giving. In all of this, their reaction to a people so different was to recast them into a mold similar to their own (Las Casas 2 of 3).

The visual images of the scene, as portrayed in Europe, as the explorers first viewed the natives and vice versa summarize succinctly the disparity between their perception that the underlying reality many missed. In a scene titled De Infulis nuper in mari Indico repertis, the explorers approach land in their sailing ships as viewed by a group of natives. The natives are naked, watching in wonder as these strangers approach. The European in the boat has his hands outstretched with a cup towards them (De Infulis).

The artist gives the ships and the explorers in great detail, down to the flag and animals on board the ship, but the natives are depicted in only their appearance, with strong focus given to their nakedness. This shows what was given the most attention by the Europeans, what they immediately perceived on the surface and drew from it. There was little intimate knowledge of the peoples culture and history.

The broad contrast in perspective is also portrayed in another work, Americen Americus retexit. The European explorer stands, dressed in elaborate robes with a flowing flag topped with a cross as the naked native stares in wonder at him. The people behind him are shown eating out by the fire and living among wild animals. The idea of what is civilized and what is considered savage is laid out clearly by the artist.

This focus on their nakedness, lack of religion and placing them on a lower level of status laid the foundation for later mistreatment and even ruin for some of these societies. The Europeans, by misinterpreting these people as less opened the door for them to use the people instead of learn from them. The viewpoint, for many of them, was laid on the thin surface of appearance, while only a few peeled away the layers to find the deeper truth.

Isolation for so long and then a sudden surge of exposure to new cultures and lands were overshadowed by the elements of wealth and resources. The people were part of this large scheme and were passed over to a large degree. Exploration into their culture, language and customs was only to the degree that it led to information regarding the potential exploitation of the land.

Others focused in on the lack of religion, viewing this as an opportunity to spread the power of Christianity, to save the savages soul or as a tool to control the people and their resources for the mother country.

Columbus stated this viewpoint of these new people in his words to Isabella and Ferdinand
In all these islands, I saw no great diversity in the appearance of the people or in
their manners and language. On the contrary, they all understand one another,
which is a very curious thing, on account of which I hope that their Highnesses
will determine upon their conversion to our holy faith, towards which they are
very inclined (Columbus 2 of 3).

This broad generalization of The Others was seen across European nations that
met these new cultures. Reacting to the real and perceived differences that lay between them, the Europeans lost the true nature of these nations in their definition each new world they possessed and used.

Ancient Greece (also known as the Birthplace of western civilization) was the archaic period dating from 8th century BC to 146 BC and lasted till the Roman conquest of Greece (Battle of Corinth) giving rise to the Greco-Roman world. Conversely, Rome was one of the largest realms of the ancient world which founded around 10th century BC in the Italian Peninsula along the Mediterranean Sea. As Rome was highly inspired by the culture of ancient Greece, classical antiquity was the term given to these civilizations. This paper discusses the Greek and Roman leisure activities (games) and famous heroes and the sculptures of Roman athletes which were influenced by Greek culture.
   
The Olympic Games began about 2500 years ago in Elis, Greece and were a part of the religious festival. There were 4 sets of games which were predominant in Greece Olympic Games (776 BC), Pythian Games (582 BC), Isthmian Games (581 BC) and Nemean Games (573 BC). They were also known as Crown Games, Sacred Games, Circuit Games or Period Games. There were 4 running events stade (200 mtrs), diaulos (400 mtrs), dolichos (long distance) and hoplitodromos (race in armour). Other games were wrestling, boxing, pankration, pentathlon (long jump, discus, javelin, running and wrestling) and horseracing. The Olympic Games were sacred to the Greek God Zeus and took place every 4 years. The Greeks also possessed an army as described by A. Daniel Frankforter in The West A Narrative History. He writes,

The Dark-Age battles that Homer describes were free-for-alls, simultaneous single combats fought by heavily armoured champions who were carried about a battlefield in chariots. The Greek infantry soldier was called a hoplite-from his hoplos, a shield shaped like a round, shallow bowl that was his most distinctive piece of equipment. Hoplite battles were intended to be brief and murderous. Sports and athletic activities were not mere entertainment for the Greeks. They provided the physical training that prepared a man for the military duties of citizenship and preserved his life. (76) Men considered women as inferior creatures and a citizen woman had the same legal status as her children, but unlike her sons, she was a life-long dependent. (78)

Frankforter further describes that,
The Spartans possessed the most intimidating army in Greece and had a professional army. This was due to the simple reason that Spartans were the only Greeks who could devote all their time to training and physical conditioning. (79-80)

During the Imperial Roman period the games dealt with advocating worldwide unity amongst churches and religions. Donald S. Gochberg in Classics of Western Thought The Ancient World (section Homers Illiad) describes the various games played in ancient Rome, and the relationship between games and funerals. The Trojans were mourning Hector whom Achilles (Greek Hero of the Trojan War and the main character of Homers Illiad) slew as Hector had killed Patroclus, Achilles friend. In honour of his dead friend, Achilles announced games and prizes for all who competed. The first event (announced by Achilles) was a chariot race for which he offered various prizes such a woman skilled in fine crafts and tripod for the winner and mares, a fine kettle, two talents of gold and a two handled pan for various runners up. (23-24) The second event- a boxing fight has been described between Epeius and Euryalus. (33) The third event was the all-in wrestling announced by Achilles and prizes were brought out were the winner receiving a big three-legged cauldron and the loser receiving a woman skilled in domestic work. (33) The next event was the foot-race for which Achilles offered prizes as well. Achilles offered a mixing-bowl of chased silver to the winner and the runner up would receive a large well-fattened ox and the last man (third) would receive half a talent of gold. (34) The foot race between Odysseus, Aias and Antilochus is well illustrated with Odysseus winning the race. (35) The next game- a gladiator fight is well depicted between Aias and Doimedes. Achilles brings a long shadowed spear, shield, helmet and arms that were required during the fight and asked the men to fight each other after putting on their armour with naked weapons. (36) The next game brought forward by Achilles was discus played by Polypoetes, Leonteus, Aias and Epeius wherein the winner was awarded a lump of pig iron. (36) Archery came next with Achilles offering violet coloured iron in the form of axes. (37) Finally the game of javelin was called to play for but without playing the bronze spear was given to Meriones with Agamemnons consent. (37-38) It is to be noted here that only men were entitled to compete in the games with women allowed only to enter horses in the equestrian events. In their leisure time, Romans also played board games (counters and dice) and enjoyed hunting.

Greek Demigod Herakles
Herakles (or Hercules-the glory of Hera) was the greatest and the most popular hero of ancient Greece. His deeds of bravery are notable in tales, sculptures and paintings of the primordial world. Herakles went on to perform 12 labors for Eurystheus, King of Mycenae in order to cleanse evil from his spirit (as in a fit of madness he had killed his wife and children). The 12 labors were to kill the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiNemean_lion o Nemean lion Nemean lion, to destroy the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiLernaean_Hydra o Lernaean Hydra Lernaean Hydra, to capture the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCeryneian_Hind o Ceryneian Hind Ceryneian Hind, to capture the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiErymanthian_Boar o Erymanthian Boar Erymanthian Boar, to clean the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiAugeas l The_Fifth_Labour_of_Heracles o Augeas Augean Stables, to kill the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiStymphalian_Birds o Stymphalian Birds Stymphalian Birds, to capture the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCretan_Bull o Cretan Bull Cretan Bull, to round up the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMares_of_Diomedes o Mares of Diomedes Mares of Diomedes, to steal the Girdle of  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiHippolyte o Hippolyte Hippolyte, to herd the Cattle of  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiGeryon o Geryon Geryon, to fetch the Apples of  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiHesperides o Hesperides Hesperides, and to capture  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCerberus o Cerberus Cerberus. After the 12 labors, Hercules rescued the princess of Troy from a hungry sea-monster and helped Zeus in winning a battle for the rule of Olympus. Herakles was enthusiastically adopted by the Romans, who called him Hercules. In this sculpture, he is identified by the skin of the Nemean Lion and the club, white poplar leaves and a fillet (ribbon). The fillet marks him as an athletic victor, and the white poplar (imported from north-western Greece) was associated with the Olympic Games which the hero has been credited with founding in honour of his father, Zeus. Similar statues were seen in Greek and Roman gymnasiums where athletes trained.

The Athenian hero Theseus
Theseus is known to be the legendary founder of Athens. He has been credited with establishing democracy and unifying Athens. He also founded the great festival Panathenaia in honor of Athena, patron Goddess of Athens. According to Plutarch, Theseus was a brave warrior who made Athens be inhabited. When Theseus was 16, he lifted a rock and took it to Athens by land. Like Herakles, Theseus treaded many dangerous paths (full of robbers and murderers) during his journey to Athens. In this figure, his achievements are displayed. He slew Periphetes, the club bearer and carried his club thereafter, killed Sinis by stretching him between a pine tree, killed a wild and savage beast Phaia-the fierce sow of Crommoyon, killed the robber Skiron who made people wash his feet and then killed them while they bended, defeated and killed the bandit Prokrustes and cleared Athens from bandits, recaptured the bull of Marathon which had been set free by Eurystheus when Herakles had caught it. Theseus finally reached Athens but his adventures did not end there. A few more depicted on this figure are Theseus retrieved the signet ring thrown by King Mynos into the ocean (along with a jewelled crown given to him by the Nereids), he killed a stupendous bull man-minotaur who lived in the labyrinth, he travelled to take the girdle of Hippolyte (queen of the Amazon) who returned with him to Athens, and lastly Theseus fought a centaur (half man-half horse) while the centaur tried to take away the bride of King Perithoos during his wedding.  Theseus has appeared in compositions by many authors and on innumerable vases.

Roman Game  Boxing
Boxing in Rome originated from Etruscan Boxing. There were two types Athletic Boxing and Gladiatorial Boxing. Boxing (pugilatus) of the Romans was extremely brutal as compared to the Greeks. Sharp thongs were used by the Greeks in boxing which were replaced by the Romans. They substituted the leather knuckleduster with a metal insert thereby developing a glove known as caestus which represented a murderous weapon. In this figure, the mosaic floor with a boxing scene (Gallo-Roman, from present day Villelaure, France about A.D. 175 in stone and glass) depicts the scene in Virgils Aeneid of the famous match between Trojan hero Dares and Sicilian champion Entellus. This match was staged in Sicily by Aeneas to honor his father Anchises who had been buried there earlier. Entellus defeats Dares and blood spurts from Dares head. In Virgils Aeneid, Virgil describes the gloves of Entellus (though he uses lighter gloves in the match on the request of Dares which was complied by Aeneas) which had been used by his brother Eryx, still stained with blood and splattered brains (sanguine cernis adhuc sparsoque infecta cerebro). (20) Entellus after winning sacrifices his prize-a bull bedecked with gold ribbons. To demonstrate how destructive the caestus can be, Entellus delivers a blow on the bulls head and killed it by fracturing its skull, proving the fatality of such blows. Virgils story in Aeneid has been immortalized in the mosaic depicting the triumphant Entellus, his injured opponent, the dying bull and the metal knuckleduster on the caesti, with blunted edges.

Marble sculpture of a Roman Athlete, A.D. 75-100
Roman sculpture was highly influenced by the Greeks largely by the style of Lysippos who was a 4th cent. BC Greek sculptor. He was from Sicyon, near Corinth and Hellenistic sculpture was based on the style he introduced. Lysippos produced almost 1500 works of art, the subjects being heroes, gods and athletes (he was the head of the athletic school of Pelopponese) with sizes ranging from small bronze statues to 60 ft high. His works also include numerous statues of Alexander the Great after 340 B.C. The other most famous statues are the figure of an athlete Apoxyomenus in the Vatican and the Agias at  HYPERLINK httpwww.encyclopedia.comtopicDelphi.aspx Delphi. Many Roman sculptures were carved in Lysippos style which he had taught himself by studying nature and the proportions of Doryphorus (Spearbearer) set by canon of Polyclitus. He shaped a new style by creating a smaller head, slender body by elongating the limbs and muscles close-lying that seemed to make his figures appear taller and more statuesque. The torso, head and limbs face in separate directions representing a brief change of action thereby indication lifelike naturalism. He also took great interest in detailing other features such as hair, eyelids and toe nails of his marble figures. In this Roman athletes sculpture by Lysippos, the elongated body, lighter musculature, nuanced pose and soft facial features are evident thereby depicting restless energy and the sense of an action caught in time.

In the book of Dominique Godineau, The Women of Paris and their French Revolution (1998), the author does not discuss any particular woman in French history. The woman depicted in the book is not one specific icon in the chronology of France, of the French Revolution, or of the aristocracy in the country at the time. Rather, the author tackles the subject of the common woman in the time of one of the bloodiest internal conflicts in history, the French Revolution. These women, displayed knitting in one instance, and boasting of brandishing the bronze rifles that were portents of change and reform in the next (Godineau 1998 p. xv).

These women were considered as the common folk, untouched by the embellishments of the rich and powerful during the era, damaged, if the term suits, with the waters of the Seine River splashing on their bodies as they tended to the laundry, either of their families or those that they are under servitude to, or stung in their fingers with the needles of the tailor shop, or the needles of the spinning wheels if they are employed in a mill. Employed in various trades, these women sought to find resources in order that their families may be able to eat. But these women were not confined to the trappings of the home, as they also sought to have a voice in the affairs of the movement of the era. These women, busy as they were with the affairs of the home, were no strangers as they took their places in the National Assembly, when they participated in the crafting of the affairs of the state, knitting most of the time, even before the Assembly or as they waited to be executed (Godineau 1998 p. xvi).

These women, again to state as familiar in the affairs of the movement, were seen to be knitting at their seats at the conclave, as well as raising their fists as they pleaded to be heard in the assembly. Apart from being at the Assembly, these women were also at the front lines, as they worked hard to administer a linen bandage to the wound of a fighter in many a battle. These women, though burdened with the affairs of tending to their homes, supported and acted with the tenets of the movement, creating their own revolutionary unit. These tricoteuses, or knitters , are so termed as they would usually knitted in their seats as they participated in the discussions and the debates that raged on the floor. The image of the knitter evokes two different images of the women in the era of the Revolution (Godineau 1998 p. xviii).

Usually an image of a woman attending to her knitting conjures up pictures of warmth, tenderness, love and working to provide for the needs of the family. But in the image of the tricoteuses, the image is that of hate, death and violence her appearance defines her character and her place in the society, her main weapon her accouterments, the image of a loving mother is morphed into one of evoking aggression and revolution. These women, tricoteuses rather than the furie de guillotine, sought to cross the societal border that hindered them from effectively being heard in public arena. By the close of the 18th century, women had by and large been confined to the stereotypes of being mothers and wives, associated with the affairs of the domestic life. They were not even accorded the title citoyen (citizen), as the prevailing image of the citizen was given only to the masculine, men in the society. Often times, the term citizen was only made to refer to the feminine sector but only in reference as the wife of the man, and not as a separate entity (Godineau 1998 p. xix).

The driving purpose in the participation in the French Revolution borders on this premise. They are not considered as true citizens of the Republic, as the spouse of the woman can only grant them that them a form of political recognition in the society. Thus, women were confined to the role of being non existent entities in the political realm, bearing only the nominal title of resident. But the French Revolution, with its advocacy of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, would allow them to finally assume their place in the society as politically existent entities, that in the prevailing societal norms, women would be recognized, and more significantly, their opinions could be heard in the public arena of the revolution and the future state (Godineau 1998 p. xix).

As in the case of femmes du monde, or the prostitutes that roamed the streets of the French capital, the lack of skills that could have steered them away from a life of selling their bodies was evident. The Societe des Citoyennes Republicaines Revolutionnaires (Society of Revolutionary Republican Women), a Paris based organization, proposed that prostitutes, as they believed are victims of their economic fortunes, be housed in house run by the state in order to rehabilitate them by way of providing them educational benefits and training for possible work. But for other women, the progression from the affairs of the home to that of participating in the affairs of the state took on more overt forms. The forms these expressions of political opinion took on the practice of fashion the women wore to indicate their support for one ideology or another (Godineau 1998 p. 12).

Women in the revolutionary era displayed on their clothing medallions, expressing their support for either Jean Paul Marat or Maximilien Robespierre, worn as necklaces, or even wearing a liberty cap. If the hair of the woman is shorn, then it would be construed that the woman expressing support for the Jacobins. Ribbons adorned with the tri colors would indicate support for the revolution. The dress of the character in the introduction of the book, La Charbonniere,  is typical of the costumes women wore in the era. Preferring pants over heavy skirts for a number of reasons, be it security, convenience or just to serve a whim, these women tried to provide for their families in the era of revolution and political upheaval (Godineau 1998 p. 7).

Apart from the direct contributions of the women in the cause of the Revolution, as stated earlier in the paper, many of the women indirectly furnished reasons for supporting the Revolution. Small booths that were constructed by women to sell wares, often torn down, gave a sense of integration and accommodation in the society. With these booths, women were sure of a place that could allow them to provide for their needs and those of their families, without having to sell their bodies in the process. But was more contributory to stoking the fires of the Revolution were women that sold the daily papers. These women, selling their goods, moved the sentiment of the public, and allowed for the provocation of the frustrations of the public as they gathered people to sell their wares (Godineau 1998 p. 10).

These vendors, with their calls just to sell their wares, contributed to the cause of certain political organizations in the French society. After the demise of Maximilien Robespierre, some newspaper vendors supported the revolution hostile to the Jacobin party by selling literature belligerent to the latter. Many of the vendors were accosted for selling what the government claimed as insurrectionist literature, such as Le Tribune du People. Some vendors, such as Therese Pillet, even added to her selling pitch the lines that he wares were against the preservation of the peace and order of the society (Godineau 1998 p. 10).

Not only were the mature women of the era instructed and familiar to be able to contribute to the Revolution. Teachers impressed on the minds of young girls and boys that the society of France mus be composed of a single family unit, with the cause of defending the people against the actions of tyrants ruling over them. These and many others strove to instill in the minds of the young on the importance of the Revolution, Thus, women were able to contribute, both directly and indirectly, to the furtherance of the cause of the Revolution (Godineau 1998 p. 57).

Today, we see the epic of Gilgamesh and Odysseus as pure literary pieces. However, the consideration of the world as a mythological picture during the ancient time implies that the perspective of the people at the time about these heroes is different. Perhaps, they see these men not simply as literary protagonists, but as models as well. At present, their traits cannot really be considered ideal. Nevertheless, there are some remarkable characteristics of both men. In fact, there are many similarities between Gilgamesh and Odysseus. For a fact, they are both courageous rulers of their rightful kingdoms. However, they also have their differences as heroic ideals.

Introduction The World as a Mythological Picture
Gilgamesh and Odysseus are two different heroic ideals, yet, there are also similarities between them that only highlight their differences. The formers epic is only deciphered a century ago from the clay tablets in the Middle East, while the latter has been famous through the ages, and is from the womb of the Western Philosophy, Greece. But before seeing the resemblances and dissimilarities of these two ancient heroes, one must be familiar with the idea of the world as a mythological picture. It is from this idea that their story, their epic, or their legend that reverberates to this date is founded.

Loews (1967) idea of creation stories is synonymous to the mythological world picture. These creation stories, he says, tell how the universe came into being (p. 26). Gaarder, (1991) on the other hand defines myth as a story about the gods which sets out to explain why life is as it is (p. 19). Thus, myths or creation stories refers to a kind of perspective in which gods and goddesses are regarded responsible for the natural phenomena. For example, the rain or the typhoon that destructs the crops would be blamed for the divinities, but so shall be the spring and the warm air that helps them in cultivation.

In addition, the Greeks at the time even believed that these divinities are responsible for their emotions or actions. For example, in Aeschylus trilogy, the decisions of Orestes, the protagonist is influenced by a goddess (Aeschylus, 2003). It should be emphasized that Homer and Hesiod are not only seen then as troubadours or the traveling poets in Greek. In fact, they and their accounts are also considered authority.

But the proto-philosophers, other than Plato already recognized that there must be something wrong with the Grecian perspective of life that is always influenced by these stories. For instance, Xenophanes is known to have said that if horses, oxen, and lions could makes art works like men, they would for their gods horse-like and oxen-like, each after its own kind (Loew, 1967, p. 213). In the Republic, Plato criticizes them, and said that, we know of them and hear of them only from the tales and genealogies of the poets (Plato, 1956, p. 162).

On the other hand, Loew (1967) said that the epics such that of Gilgamesh and of Odysseus already suggest a break from the myths. Instead of treating them divine, these divinities are simply used as principles of explanation. In this sense, the treacherous acts of Gilgamesh and Odysseus are justified because even the gods and goddesses are portrayed that way. This is the background of the two heroes of two great epics. How this is relevant to them as heroic ideals shall be discussed later.

The Epic of Gilgamesh A Glimpse
Gilgamesh is described as two thirds god and one third man, and because of this his strength is naturally superhuman. His strength plus his ruthlessness made the people of Uruk, in which he is the ruler, lament about it. To solve their problem, they prayed. This made the gods summon Aruru, the goddess of creation. She created Ekindu, the savage man and the equal of Gilgamesh so that they would contend, and leave Uruk in peace (The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1972, p. 62-63). Gilgamesh learnt about Ekindu, the savage and ploted to send a prostitute to humanize
Ekindu, so that when Ekindu came to Uruk and challenged Gilgamesh, they eventually ended up partners (p. 69).

As partners, Gilgamesh and Ekindu fought monsters and defeated them. When they came home Gilgamesh dressed handsomely, so handsomely that the goddess Ishtar proposed marriage. However, the hero declined her offer and instead even said that

Which of your lovers did you ever love forever What shepherd of yours has pleased you for all timeAnd if you and I should be lovers, should not I be served in the same fashion as all these others whom you loved once (p. 86-870).

This angered the goddess.  She asked permission to another god to kill Gilgamesh by sending the Bull of Heaven. However, Ekindu interfered. The bull is killed and Ekindu even tossed a part of it to Ishtars face. This is blasphemy and made the gods decide to kill Ekindu.

This death made Gilgamesh weep, and even more made him want to search for immortality. He was afraid for his own death. Because of this, Gilgamesh left Uruk and searched Utnapishtim, a man who gained immortality (Loew, 1972, p. 56-57). The latter told Gilgamesh to stay awake for seven days, but he failed and lost his chance for immortality. On his way home, the boatman shared that under the waters lie a plant that could bring youth back. Gilgamesh got it, but a snake stole it to him. As fated, and because he is mortal, Gilgamesh died.

The Odyssey A Glimpse
Homers Odysseys setting was just after the ten-year Trojan War. The whole adventure of Odysseus started when he blinded Cyclops, Poseidons son on his way home to Ithaca. This is the reason why Poseidon wanted to make Odysseus suffer (Homer, 1998, p.5). Before coming home to Ithaca, Odysseus faced different persons and creatures that halt his homecoming. Most of the times, they are influenced by Poseidon who was seeking justice for his son. All the time, Athena was protecting Odysseus, and was intervening in the events.

Upon coming home, he hid his identity so that disguised as a castaway he learns the situation of Ithaca and his family from his own swineherd. In that same place, Odysseus finally met his son, revealed his identity, and they both plot to kill the suitors who disgraced Ithaca. Odysseus resumed pretending that he is a tattered stranger so that when Penelope saw him, she failed to recognize that it was her husband. Penelope, after waiting for two decades for his husbands return, finally decided that she must at last surrender to the summons of her suitors. She proposed that who shall ever pass her test, which is to string Odysseus bow, shall win her hand.  The suitors tried to string it and while they fail to pass the test, they did not agree that the beggar who is Odysseus should try it. In the end, Odysseus was able to string his own bow. He revealed his identity, and with the help of his son and two other servants proven loyal, they killed Penelopes suitors.

Gilgamesh vis--vis Odysseus
Gilgamesh and Odysseus are both rulers of their lands. Gilgamesh is the ruler of Uruk, but he is ruthless that the men of Uruk fear him (The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1972, p. 61-62). Uruk is located in the present day Middle East while on the other hand, Odysseus Ithaca is part of the present day Greece. As a ruler and as a person, Gilgamesh is described as someone whose lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warriors daughter, nor the wife of the noble (p.62). In addition, he is also described as the shepherd of the city, wise, comely and resolute (p. 62).

Like Gilgamesh, the traits of Odysseus described in The Odyssey are not befitting the modern-day hero. They are not virtuous in the contemporary ethical sense. In fact, both of them have traits that can be described as deceitful and treacherous. Odysseus or Ulysses for having blinded an eye of Polyphemus king of the Cyclopes, makes Neptune or Poseidon furious about him (Homer, 1998, p. 5). Aurbach (as cited by Loew, 1967) even mentioned that Homer did not fail to portray that when Odysseus tried to stop the slave woman from announcing his true identity, he takes the woman by the throat to keep her from speaking (p. 191).

Xenophanes had noticed that Homer and Hesiod portrayed gods doing things that are considered disgrace and shame among men such as stealing, adultery, and cheating each other (Loew, 1967, p. 213). Because of this Odysseus traits are akin to those of gods. This is similar and is also applicable to the epic of Gilgamesh as gods and goddesses like Ishtar commit crimes like murder.

Gilgamesh is also hated by the people of Uruk because he left no son to its father, even the children as he takes them all (The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1972, p. 62). Similarly, Homer (1998) did not fail to portray that when Odysseus reached Ithaca after his 2-decade journey, the men are not at all happy to see him. In fact, one lamented that

My friend, this man has done the Achaeans great wrong. He took many of our best men away with him in his fleet, and he has lost both ships and men now, moreover, on his return he has been killing all the foremost men among the Cephallenians (p. 297).

That disgust of their ruler Odysseus was justified, however, when another man said that the interventions of the gods are the real cause of those persons death (p. 298). Unlike Odysseus, when the people of Uruk prayed to Anu because of Gilgameshs injustice to his people, the gods asked Aruru, the goddess of creation to make Ekindu. Evidently, the gods in Gilgamesh epic did not justify his wrong-doings.

In addition, unlike Gilgamesh, there is no significant change in Odysseus throughout the narrative. The time and the adventures of Odysseus seem not to change his character, not even his outward appearance, although Homer did not fail to describe his gestures and his exterior form. Loew (1967) concludes that after twenty years, Odysseus is the same man who left Ithaca.

It would not be unfair to say that not like Odysseus, Gilgamesh experience a character and inner change in the epic. First, the creation of his partner humanized him in such a way that he finally recognized the others right to life. Ekindu is the first mortal whom Gilgamesh respected. While he may not be able to apply that to the citizens of Uruk, it still remains a good sign of being humane. In addition, the ruthless ruler is finally humbled because the death of Ekindu made him fear for his own death.

Odysseus heroic feats ended up in a they live happily ever after as he was able to regain Ithaca. However, Gilgamesh failed in his quest as he return to Uruk from his search of immortality. It is concluded that while Gilgamesh failed in his search, it was a clear expression of the revolt against death (Loew, 1972, p. 58). On the contrary the ending of the Odyssesy showed that the unethical acts of Odysseus are approved by the gods and goddesses as in the end, Minerva assumed the form and voice of Mentor, and presently made a covenant of peace between the two contending parties (Homer, 2003, p. 300).

Conclusion
Gilgamesh represented the Middle East, while Odysseus the West. Their epics are classics and have been the inspiration of many others. Unlike today, there was a time that their stories are considered not only as literary masterpieces, but even as authoritative texts. This is because their epics are created during the period when people saw the world as a mythological picture. Because of this, Plato (1956) planned to ban troubadours like Homer in his ideal Republic as they corrupt the images of gods as equally deceitful as men.

There are many similarities between Gilgamesh and Odysseus. However, it could be seen that the Grecian Heros unethical acts, treachery and deceitfulness was justified by the gods and goddesses, while Gilgamesh acts were not. In fact, it has been said that when the people of Uruk prayed to the gods to make an equal of Gilgamesh so that he would live his citizens at peace, the gods listened to them. In addition, it is to be concluded that Odysseus is a flat character, and that two decades of adventure were not enough to change him be it internally or externally. On the other hand, the death of Ekindu humanized Gilgamesh. This event made him search for immortality, and as he failed he was finally humbled upon returning to Uruk.