West European Studies

The development of ancient to modern history has seen a development and continuous shifts from the common themes of faith and reason. These have been the supplemental elements that brought about change within the period and served as an important periods in highlighting new methods for development. Here, each particular theme transcended to each civilization and made a lasting contribution that have shaped their capacity to induce new prospects for change.  In the end, these have remained to be important facilitators in culminating the rise and growth of civilizations during a particular period.

    Looking at the ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Mesopotamians, it can be seen that each one commonly share the theme of mysticism (faith). This element have shaped important functions for its people as it highlighted new foundations for renewing a growth in their capacity to understand the realities happening in nature and how they will respond accordingly. Furthermore, faith has ensured new components for understanding by highlighting new inputs that have both stimulated progression and interplay of powers among the citizenry and their leaders.

    History then started to shift with the rise of Greeks and the Roman Empire. Here, it can be seen that it has seen new dynamics that cultivated and diversified new approaches in handling the manifestations of reality. Despite its still relative inclination to their particular faith and beliefs, these civilizations also saw the rise of rational thinkers who have shaped the way people think during these time. These actors influenced the way people perceive key issues in politics and allowed discourses to be based on the rational thought and often comprises of scenarios in ethics, morality, and perspectives towards living ones life.

    At the same time, the development of the Roman and Greek empires facilitated new dimensions for the development of science. Inputs coming from scholars who have shifted from the religious belief started to emancipate the notion of logic and reasoning in addressing key issues. These remain to be an important legacy left by these two civilizations and have furthered not only their ability to become adaptive to the needs of society but also lengthen their role and continuously expand their territories and control.

    The fall of the Roman Empire also marked the beginning of the Dark Ages. The DarkMiddle Ages can also be referred to as restoration of religious beliefs among civilizations particularly in Europe. Here, the common themes centered on the religious life as the theme circumvented not only in each ones life but also on the capacity to induce in key areas in society such as politics, economics, and the formulation of the arts and architecture. These in turn have lasting elements on the people and fostered a deeper connection with ones faith and became the primary basis for living their life.

    New innovations towards scientific and rational thought were then recaptured during the Renaissance period. Here, thinkers and artists from Italy sought to capture and reinvent the world view and offer people an alternative to religious thinking by people. Here, it not only highlights their capacity to induce change but also capitalize towards the proper ground towards the transition to modern history. The contributions in the different fields from the Arts to architecture offered new ways for people to grow and equally respond to the changes happening and cater new inputs on how to view the reality and the environment.

    To conclude, the principle of both faith and reason has their own distinct and relatively important contributions to the rise and fall of civilizations. These tenets have helped shape not only their capacity to become effective in outlining their needs but also became approaches that have brought about answers to the questions surrounding their identity and relevance in the overall environment. It is through these that it created new inputs towards the facilitation of growth and development in their own distinct sense.

The start of the Carolingian dynasty is easier to identify than its end, although the earliest Carolingians ruled in the name of the previous Merovingian kings before claiming the title King of the Franks. The family rose to prominence as mayors of the Merovingian palace, then more or less assumed power when the last Merovingians were minor unable to rule directly. It was Peppin, son of the Charles Martel, who took the crown in 751. The end of the dynasty was effectively 888, when Charles the Fat died although a few subsequent Carolingians ruled smaller territories ending in 987 when the first Capertian was crowned. Peppins son, known as Charlemagne, became the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 and greatly extended the geographical throughout Western Europe, gaining some territory that the Roman Empire had not governed.

This proved to be the zenith of the empire. Charlemagne reign is also referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance because of his patronage of learning, commissioning translations and copies of texts from Greece and Rome. Regarding himself as successor to the Roman emperors, he wanted to preserve as much of the Roman heritage as he could. Emulating Roman order and establishing political unity, he did much to create an enduring notion of Europe as a common home across national boundaries. He is often credited with laying the foundations of modern Europe. However, he failed to establish rules for passing the crown on to his heirs. The old Frankish custom of subdividing the kingdom led to Charlemagnes sons competing for supremacy, each ruling a portion of the empire although in theory is remained united. Civil was marked the rest of the empires days until Charlemagnes grandson, Charles the Fat died in 888. The subdivision that followed his death ended any illusion of continued unity, although the title of Holy Roman Emperor was sustained, initially for the Italian branch.

The main reason for the empires collapse into numerous kinglets was competition for succession. However, there were some problems associated with internal cohesion that exacerbated this situation. The basic organization was counties, with counts appointed by the emperor, who chose local nobles who were tasked wit dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Centrally employed officials, one clerical, one lay. They traveled the regions in the emperors name performing a supervisory function. This led to conflict with the Counts, who saw these officials as threat to their interests. The administrative system worked well enough under Charlemagne. It balanced local interests, represented by the Counts with the centers interests policed by the traveling officials. They were the face of the kings public authority. However, when disputes arose between rival members of the dynasty, the Counts took sides, even encouraging competition. They hoped that their candidate would win and reward them.

Disunity was mainly due to the counts ambitions and later of the dukes who asserted more and more personal authority, usurping the kings prerogatives. The Carolingians attempted to control use of arms, for example but this was increasingly impossible given the power of nobles and the kings own dependence on their military support. Where the Carolingians failed was that they were unable to achieve a better balance between the centers authority and the Counts and allowed themselves to be pushed into fruitless territorial expansion that benefited the Counts more than the center. The counts also benefited from territorial expansion and pressured the kings to continue this so that they could gain booty and battle honors. Counts who thought themselves passed over or neglected sometimes rebelled or formed dissident circles. All this contributed to internal strife, speeding the break-up process that splintered the empire and ended he dynasty. The heirs were too busy fighting each other to deal with the clash of interests that undermined their own authority with Counts claiming rights of their own. When the empire collapses, several counties had become semi-independent Duchies, such as those of Saxony and Lorriane.

The great achievement of the Carolingians was establishing the notion of the King as a divinely anointed ruler, whose authority derived primarily than from his coronation and the Churches sanction. Pippin may have felt that lack of royal blood required some legitimization and it was his coronation by Pope Adrian that supplied this, invoking Biblical notions of Davids anointment. A king might seize or claim the throne but only the church could anoint his rule. Adrians success re-anointed Pippin and his sons and also declared that only an heir of Pippin could be chosen king, thus establishing the dynastys claim to perpetual royalty, solving the problem of ancestry. The symbol of office, a crown representing spiritual and temporal authority, also signified the patriarchal aspect of kingship. The king was a patriarch, ruling his household, the kingdom and even the church, appointing bishops and other officials. Patrimony worked from top to bottom.

One difference between the Merovingian kings and the Carolingians was that the former tended to promote people as counts to gain their loyalty, rather than appointing local magnates as counts. The Carolingian aim was to discourage revolt by appointing those who were already locally established as leaders. The Merovingian practice allowed for more flexibility and rewarding merit. There was some movement from the bottom up. The Carolingians strengthened the aristocracy and ideas of power and authority as family possessions. This allowed the wealthier counts to usurp central authority by raising their own status. The Carolingians developed a more unitary legal system, while the Merovingians allowed local variations. By claiming to succeed the Romans, the Carolingians adopted a grander vision of kingship and also of the life of the empire as a community knit together by common values, with the emperor at the top, supported by the counts whose own authority derived from his patronage. Theoretically, authority was vested in a single person and others acted on his behalf. This system of patronage was perhaps never fully accepted by the counts, who though that they had authority of their own at the local level. However, they benefited from royal patrimony too and accepted the dynastys claims, which they never attempted to overthrow as such although they did switch loyalties to different members, pursuing self-interest. Successor dynasties in France continued the notion of kings rights and patriarchy as a top down system of authority, with each layer demanding loyalty and compliance from below. Ultimately, this led to absolute kingly power, discouraging the development of more shared governance. Were the Carolingians better rulers than their predecessors Issues of succession plagued both but the former did more to establish a recognizable state system that, eventually, became the country of France.

How did the pattern of political and cultural development in Anglo-Saxon England differ from that of the Continent What were the main stages in the evolution of England up to 1066 What were the roles of the Vikings in the shaping of the English nation Compare and contrast Alfred the Great with Charlemagne.

The main difference between the political and cultural development in England prior to the Norman invasion of 1066 and the Continent was that there was much less centralization. In Anglo-Saxon feudalism, barons were landlords with serfs bound to them, laboring on the land. They exercised considerably autonomy but were not obliged, unless contracted, to fight for the king, whose authority was limited. Lesser knights could choose their lord. There was little centralization, no common taxation system. Barons saw the king as a senior baron, rather than as automatically their superior. They had a say in confirming the succession. There was less of a desire to unify the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until this became pragmatic in the face of constant Viking raids. The eventual unification of England into a single kingdom was largely a reaction to the threat of Scandinavian domination, although with the exception of Canute, the Vikings came, raided and usually went away.
Alfred the Great, who ruled Wessex 971 to 901 C.E. came to power in the context of driving out the Danes. Like Charlemagne, he saw himself as a Christian king and lawgiver, consolidating the legal system. Like Charlemagne, he established the foundations of what became a unified kingdom, eventually a worldwide empire. Some suggest that what Charlemagne did for France and arguably for Europe, Alfred did for the off shore island, Great Britain. Like Charlemagne, he patronized learning and may have wanted to restore the Roman heritage. Alfred visited the Pope in Rome, where he was invested as a Consul and possible crowned as well. This might have taken him closer to the Carolingian idea of the patriarchal king. However, Alfred and his successors saw themselves as servants and peacemakers, not as conquerors. Edgar (959975) took a coronation vow to serve the people, an idea that that differed radically from the right of kings dogma of the Continent. Known as the peaceful he is said to have ruled like a good shepherd. In Anglo-Saxon England, the emphasis was on the covenant between King and people, as a partnership, not a top down imperial system. When Canute decided to stay, he married the previous kings widow but chose to rule as a Saxon king, observing local traditions. He also arranged a coronation stressing responsibility to uphold justice, not his personal power. This distinctive recognition of the peoples right to justice, of justice as above the king, not his possession, represented the Anglo-Saxon view of kingly power. After the Norman Conquest, this reasserted itself in the early development of parliament as a check on kingly power, involving commoners as well as nobles in asserting a right to share governance.

The Prince (Il Principe) is a political treatise written during the Renaissance by Niccolo Machiavelli for his patron, Lorenzo (the Magnificent) de Medici as a practical guide on how a ruler should govern his area of jurisdiction. 

In one instance, with regard to the defense of the (city) state, Machiavelli counsels against the employment of mercenaries and even auxiliaries by the Prince. Machiavelli deems that they are unreliable because such men cannot be trusted to be loyal (50). Their only loyalty would be to those who would pay them well. There is also a likelihood that they will flee from the battle instead of fighting to the end for the Prince. Either way, win or lose, the Prince would be in trouble (Machiavelli 50-51).

With regard to what kind of attitude a ruler must exhibit to the citizens, Machiavelli states that to be feared is preferable over to be loved by the citizens. Although ideally, both would be fine, it is unrealistically possible for these two attitudes to be together. If a ruler is to be loved, his people would expect a lot from him, and it may come to a point where he might not be able to accommodate their wishes, unlike fear where absolute respect and obedience can be obtained, especially by his army. But in doing so, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred (Machiavelli, 66-67).

From these sections, The Prince would be considered a manual for any ruler that wants to stay in power, and unfortunately, these are the ones who were seduced and addicted to it.

    The interaction of different states in the world plays an important role in the overall situation and condition of the international community. The way by which countries establish relationships among each other, especially the major powers in the world has a crucial part in either maintaining international peace and security or having an all out war in the world. This kind of adage is greatly exemplified in the relationship of the United States of America and Russia. Russia, which is previously part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) has beliefs and practices that do not coincide with the ideology of the United States. The ideological conflict between the United States and USSR largely evolved around the adherence of the former to the democracy and capitalism while the latter is more inclined towards communism. Due to this, the tensions between the United States and the USSR become observable that even led to the point that the Russians and Americans are competing against each other when it comes to the development of technology that helps in their warfare. In relation to this, there has also been an issue regarding American scientists who stole ideas from the Russians that aids the Americans to control the weather, block communication, and even control minds, which is believed to be done by the HAARP. Being the case, it is necessary that the allegation regarding the stealing of ideas by the Americans is given due attention and importance because it has an essential part in understanding the relation of the United States and the USSR during the Second World War.

Background of the Relationship between Russia and United States
    In the past decades, the relationship of Russia or formerly known as the Soviet Union and the United States were unfriendly due to the competition and the disputes it had experienced. In reflection, the cold war became the most important era in which people would see how the United States and Russia interacted with each other. From 1945, the United States and Russia had been competing in terms of power and relations with other nations. In the past years, the relations of these states are very hostile. From the World War II, the United States and Russia have had political tension where in most of these resulted to wars.

    Due to this, there are different kinds of techniques in which the countries explored in order to compete with each other. In terms of power, Russia and United States have gone to creating stronger weapons against each other. Moreover, Russia and United States built strong relations with other nations in order to have a stronger influence in terms of decision making in the international community. On the other hand, the power and influence of nations were very important in order to be the strongest power in the nation (Sivachev and Yakovlev, 225).

    Currently, the United States and Russia has a much amicable relationship with one another. After the World War II and the Cold War had ended, the issues regarding the past had already been put aside. The relations of countries are now very friendly and very peaceful. In fact, the current president of United States Barack Obama had visited Russia and mediated different issues in which both countries could profit. Furthermore, the United States and Russia are able to reconcile the past events and realize that peace is the only way in which both countries could benefit. Thus, the United States and Russia are now united to face the challenges of the present era (Sivachev and Yakovlev 249).

HAARP

    The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is regarded as an investigation project, which is established through the joint efforts of the United States Air Force, United States Navy, University of Alaska, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), as they are responsible for funding the project. The main objective in the creation of the HAARP is to examine the ionosphere in order to identify whether some of its properties could be used in order to help in the communication and surveillance related activities of the United States. HAARP started in 1993 and this project is proposed to last for the span of twenty years. The system that is used in this investigation project is deigned and built by the Advanced Power Technologies and starting 2003, the BAE Advanced Technologies is responsible in HAARP system. In relation to this, the facility of the HAARP that currently operates are a Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High frequency Radar, fluxgate magnetometer, digisonde, and an induction magnetometer that is located alongside the transmitter facilities of HAARP (Beck 60-63).

    The main instrument at HAARP is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). It is a high-frequency (HF) transmitter system that is utilized in order to energize a part of the ionosphere. The use of the IRI is very important in the project because the modified volumes of it give essential information that contributes to the knowledge regarding the ionospheric processes (Hackett et al. 151).

    On the other hand, not all people are in favor of the different research experiments that HAARP are doing, as there are also a number of criticisms against this investigation project. One of the prominent issues that HAARP are involved is the power emission of its facilities. The critics of HAARP argued that the amount of energy used in the project contributes to the destruction of the atmosphere, especially of the ozone layer because of the energies that HAARP are sending in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, HAARP defended its investigation project, by saying that the energy that they used is merely a minuscule as compared with the enormous amount of energy that is dumped in the atmosphere because of solar radiation and thunderstorms (Smart et al. 366-367).

    Another controversy about the HAARP is regarding the objective of this investigation project. In the 1990s, there are claims that the antennas used by HAARP could be used as a weapon. A group of American physicists express their complaints in a non-peer reviewed letters entitled Physics and Society. This group accused the HAARP that the investigation project is looking for ways in order to annihilate or disable enemy aircraft. In addition, this group of American physicists also thinks that the antennas of HAARP could be used to disrupt the communication in a large part of the world. Nevertheless, the physicists who criticize the experiments of the HAARP are not complaining much about the current stage of the project because it has not yet developed to the level wherein it could indeed become a weapon. However, the physicists are worried that the project of HAARP could expand in the future to become an investigation project for the creation of a weapon. This allegation is further heightened by the fact that the United States Navy and Air Force contribute to the funding of HAARP (Burnett 232).

    The allegation regarding the objective of HAARP to develop a weapon is further amplified by the works of Bernard Eastlund. In the 1980s, Eastlund is responsible for the development of the concepts that are behind HAARP. He proposed the use of high-frequency radio waves in order to energize the ionosphere. By using the high-frequency waves, HAARP could be able to disable incoming missiles as well as destroy the satellite communication system of the enemy. However, the contractors who were chosen to build the HAARP did not use any of the works of Eastlund in their development of the investigation project (The Militarys Mystery Machine 60 -62).

    The American physicists who expressed their concerns about the development of the HAARP are supported by local activism. In September 1995, Nick Begich Jr. wrote a book entitled Angels Dont Play This HAARP Advances in Tesla Technology. Begich discussed in his book that the current stage of HAARP is capable of being used as a geophysical warfare. In relation to this, there are also conspiracy theorists who assert that the power of HAARP is way beyond contributing to machineries of warfare it could also change weather patterns, interfere with communication systems, disrupt mental processes, and even manipulate the earths atmosphere (Begich and Manning 78-80).

    The issues about the HAARP reached its peak when it is also mentioned by the Russian Parliament. The State Duma of Russia or the Russian Parliament gave a press release about HAARP, which is written by the countrys international affairs and defense committees as well as 90 deputies. This press release was also given to President Vladimir Putin. The press release stated that the United States is developing geophysical weapons that could have an effect on the near-Earth medium with frequency radio waves. The Russian government even compared the geophysical weapons of HAARP to the development of cold steel to firearms and conventional weapons to nuclear weapons. However, this press release made by Russia is recognized by others as politically tainted because of the United States withdrawal in the Russian-American Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (Russian parliament concerned about U.S. plans to create qualitatively new weapons n.d.).

Scientific Conspiracy
    In the wars which had happened in the past, the process of war had been developing. The development leads to the aspect of which more and more people are affected by the wars. Furthermore, various weapons are done through different scientific studies of scientists. Hence, more and more weapons are made in order to gain power and influence in the world. In reflection, the theory of realism states that power over other nations is important. Thus, power through the use of violence is very powerful in the eyes of other nations. Moreover through fear and military power, is very important to a country.

    In the case of the United Statesas a powerful country, it needs to have their defenses available in times of threats. Furthermore, there is one conspiracy which had been circling around which states that the current American scientists are imitating the past ideas of the Old Russian scientists as a military defense mechanism to different possible attack. Thus, this conspiracy is still yet to be discovered in this paper.

    Based on HAARP, it is mentioned that there are activities in which are made in order for the United States to protect it self not only through a military perspective. However, these kinds of accusation are not yet known to many. Due to this, there are issues circulating that conspires the problem. Although there are these kinds of issues, there are books which prove that these kinds of issues are present in the world.

    In the book written by Jerry Smith, he narrated the power which is present. Smith proves that the power of the United States had sprung unto its scientific discoveries and scientific investments. The author stated that the United States had built different kinds of mechanisms and machineries in order for to attain power over various factors present. One of these is the weather control. It is stated that that United States burns holes in the ionosphere. Furthermore, the ionosphere is the protective layer of the earth against the harmful rays of light. Thus, the opening made in the ionosphere is mentioned to have a possibility to make long range communication. Thus, scientists had created a transmitter which blocks messages or communication lines of selected parties. As a result, the communication lines of selected people would not go through and miscommunication is pronounced. As discussed by Smith in his book he stated, A weapon that could create clouds of electrons moving at the speed of light could accomplish both of these objectives. A radio transmitter could be used to disrupt world-wide radio communication, as well. (9) Through such technology, the communication in different parts of the world could be messed up. On the other hand, the effects of these kinds of technologies are also massive, because upon the effectiveness of these systems, it is said that all living things that are exposed would be dead.

    On the other hand, HAARP is also accused of creating systems to which it manipulates minds. Through the use of a certain type of machinery, the minds of people with the location near the machine or plant. Although the results of the plant had still unsolved, the website called theforbiddenknowledge.com had presented that the HAARP uses a certain type of technology to attain what they want. As mentioned earlier the organization is said to control minds.
    On the other hand, the organization is also able to create changes in the weather. Based on the website www.jesus-is-savior.com, it stated that the problem with regards to the changing of weather is very true because a file presented by the file which shows that the United Nations had already published a prohibition of different military attacks and techniques which contribute to the changes in the weather or the environmental factors in the world. Therefore, the United Nations were already aware of such possibility because of this amendment. In fact, the file presented in the website was dated way back in 1976 where in wars between different nations were still very active.

In conclusion, the United States and is able to create different mechanisms in order for them to have power over different kinds of aspects such as military and environmental power as well. Although through the use of these machineries, power could be attained. However, many people could be affectedmost especially those who are innocent. On the other hand, manipulating the natural environment is very unjust for not only certain group of people would experience these, but all the people in the world. Furthermore, the environment does is not only linked in the weather but also the resources available. As mentioned earlier, these kinds of machineries are not only dangerous for its future consequences but it could induce immediate death of people and of all living things. In the end, wars and conflict had been a given because misunderstandings could lead to violence. However the environment could not be controlled by the people and replacement of the environment is dangerous for everyone.

    The industrial revolution is a period in Europe when the agricultural, the technological, manufacturing and even the production sectors experienced a big change which led to their improvement. The main cause of this revolution was the availability of resources that had been brought about by other revolutions. For instance the Agrarian Revolution which had led to the availability of more reliable sources of food to the population. Other resources had also been made available by the increased capacity to prospect for them. For instance, the increased capacity to prospect for minerals and other resources needed in the factories for the production and manufacturing industries. The main effects of the industrial revolution were that it led to the growth of urban centers. This in turn led to the growth of population as more and more people were moving to the urban centers to provide labor. As such, the demand for labor had been created. Labor was then classified into the skilled and the semi-skilled. The existence of the two in effect served to create classes the middle class and the upper class for the skilled and the lower class for the semi-skilled respectively. The lifestyles between the divide was so different that the standard of living improved so mush for those in the middle and the upper classes. It however did not improve much for those in the lower (Hudson 155). The introduction of a faster means of transport and other communication also had an impact on the population as it might have rendered some people jobless due to the ease with which the machines covered more jobs. This implied that the revolution carried with it both advantages and disadvantages (Mokyr 121).   

A closer look at the economic impact reflects a change that was mainly driven by the changing in the technological capacities. Technology as a whole served to change the speed with which many things were done. For instance, the introduction of faster machines led to the large-scale production of goods done under economies of scale. This in turn led to the reduction of prices of goods and as such more people could afford the goods. On the other hand, this would mean that more people were laid off their jobs as machines took their places (Soman 1). There was also the environment pollution by the machines which by then produced harmful emissions to the atmosphere. The communication and transport sector also received a boost as the introduction of faster means of transport and telecommunications had many advantages. Trains were faster, cheaper and could haul a great deal of cargo alongside human beings. They were faster than horses over a long distance and hence preferred. Telephones and telegrams also ensured the passing of information in a faster way. They were more efficient and reliable so that information could be passed from one person to the other in a matter of minutes in the case of telephones. Business deals were as such made easier to transact. Technology also ensured that more inventions were made so that the health sector improved. Invention of various communication equipment like the telegraph and the telephone increased efficiency of communication. This went a long way to increase speeds of business transactions. Apart from anesthesia which was introduced in hospitals, vaccines were also discovered. This made the sale of medical supplies to other areas a sector that raked in profits for the country (Soman 1).

    There was a demand for more raw materials created by the enhanced capacities of the factories. This led to the invasion of Africa and Asia by the British and French in search for resources and labor. They also invaded the markets so that they introduced more of their goods into the African and Asian markets (Ross 1). This had a positive impact as there were available resources in the regions that they had colonized. The European colonizers led invasions into countries like Ghana where they sourced for slaves who could do the menial labor in the industries or even work as farm helps for the production of cash crops in large scale personal farms or even industrial farms. These included the cotton farms in Britain. On the other hand, the markets for goods were located in areas such as Asia and South Africa where they could sell their produce in exchange for cash and other raw materials. This ensured an expansion of the market base so that the trade between the countries flourished. All this went a long way in ensuring that Europe became more of a producer than just a consumer (Ross 1).

    Urbanization as an effect of industrialization led to the faster growth of urban centers. This needed the building of houses and other forms of shelters to house more people. Therefore, the construction industry expanded due to this demand for more housing. There was housing for the middle and upper classes that actually resulted in there being more companies involving in the construction of houses (Mokyr 121). Demand for cement increased and so did it for other building materials. More and more people moved into the urban areas. This included the moving in of more skilled laborers. There was thus a creation of classes the skilled and the semi-skilled. While the semi-skilled occupied the lower class, the skilled laborers occupied the housing projects started by construction companies to fulfill the demand for better housing standards by the skilled (Industrial Revolution. 1).

    The economic effect of the Industrial Revolution can be touted to have had the largest effect of all the others. This can be seen in the fact that it actually was the main cause of the others. For instance, when there was growth of the economy, the social class of the people changed as more and more people could now afford more goods due to cheaper prices brought about by the economies of scale. The living standards were also improved as the expansion of the urban centers together with the introduction of better services served to improve the lives of the people. There was an increase in population due to the better services that the hospitals could offer after introduction of vaccines and safer operations carried out using anesthesia. This ensured lower mortality rates though it was a gradual process. A good economy is sure likely to bring about introduction of better political class as the literacy levels were also increased. Therefore, political stability was improved. Movement of people from different regions of the country into one urban setting brought about the increase in socialization of the masses so that people intermingled and married from across communities to bring about a unified generation. Therefore, the economic changes influenced more of the changes. The revolution also had a major change in Africa and Asia as a whole. There was more economic expansion of markets in the African and Asian regions. Most of it involved the movement of raw materials from Africa and Asia to Europe. It is therefore prudent that we see the economic impact as the change that drove the Industrial Revolution to impact so much on the people. The Industrial Revolution brought along so many changes in the economy but it doesnt go without notice that it also brought with it a lot of negative effects (Soman 1). The demand for more fuel for the factories contributed much to environmental degradation as forests were cut down to provide wood for fuel. In turn, there was an effect to the environment as the emissions from the factories polluted the environment. The labor industry also experienced a need for more cheap labor as there was a lot of work to be done that only needed unskilled labor. This led to the introduction of child labor. Children as young as nine were used in factories to help in the labor. In some instances, countries such as France and Britain colonized regions in Africa so as to capture slaves who were to be used as laborers in their farms. This strained the relationships between the countries involved. Technology also had a negative impact. More and more people were misplaced from their jobs as machines took over in their places for faster production. Rural to urban migration reduced the labor available in the rural areas for agricultural purposes. This reduced the production of food in the small-scale personally owned farms that mainly practiced subsistence farming. All in all, the positive side of The Industrial Revolution was much more than the negative (Hudson 154).

Historians and modern studies experts have noted the similarities and resemblance that exist between the ancient Roman, Greek civilizations and European or American history. These civilizations evolved from a primarily agrarian community to develop into sea faring and trading economies that promoted a complex and well organized social political system. The evolution of the society was based on an unequal distribution of wealth and power that defined the distinctive social divisions and status of population living within a community. These civilizations were the founding stones of the new principles and practices that are widely accepted in global communities today. There are many interesting concepts that have evolved from these civilizations and one such theory is the practice of democracy in the modern day civilizations. The paper provides an insight and analysis into the historic growth and development of such concepts in the context of ancient Greek and Roman civilization.

A study of the history of these two civilizations provides a foundation of how neighboring countries and regions even in ancient times took advantage of political unrest to establish their dominance and authority. Political power and economic prosperity were the key factors in defining the growth of cultures and social structures that made way for new historical events. It is interesting to note that the Middle Western countries of Persia and Macedonia made a distinctive impression on the development of these civilizations with specific focus on the Greek civilization. The invasion of Alexander was a historical milestone that redefined geographic boundaries and power structures at that time and this marked a new era in the development of Greek and Egyptian civilization.

Compare and contrast between Greek and Roman civilization

The Greek civilization
The Greek civilization entered a new phase of development and growth in the Dark Ages that marked the beginning of a new civilization. The developments at this stage were phenomenal in introducing a new culture and political legacy that formed the foundation of the new age political system. The Greek adopted many cultural aspects and political ideas from the Phoenicians who inspired the Greeks into new forms of traditions and commercial activity. The growing contact with the Phoenicians led to the growing trade practices through sea route. The Greeks built merchant ships to promote trade activities and this resulted in increased commercial activity in the civilization. The growing affluence of the social sectors led to emergence of political institutions and establishments to support the economic growth and social development. The whole civilization was divided into distinct polis that represented separate communities having its own principles of governance. The Dark Age was followed by the Archaic Age when the Greek civilization witnessed the mushrooming of colonial structure that extended from the Black Sea to the Western Mediterranean coast. The colonial expansion led to an increasing contact with the Egyptian and Phoenician cultures that influenced development in the sector of trade and commerce. The political system in Greece evolved to adapt to an increasing democratic system. The Dark Ages were defined by aristocratic monopoly on military prowess that leveraged its political and social control within the community. However, with the emergence of Hoplites (foot soldiers armed with spears) the military power was passed on to the people that formed the origin for the establishment of a democratic political order that ensured increased participation of common man in the governance of states. The development of the Greek civilization was founded on the growth of three distinct communities  Athens, Sparta and Miletus.

Athens was primarily an agricultural community in the Dark Age. Over time the community strengthened its economic activities to gain a stronghold on trade and commerce. This was largely accountable to the efforts of Solon, one of the aristocrats from Athens who introduced large scale reforms that paved the way for the emergence and growth of trading practices and a political system that reflected democratic ideals. The increasing affluence of the people within the community was instrumental in developing the economy and by 500 BCE Athens was the prime exporter of olive oils, wines and pottery.

Sparta was on the other hand lacking development in terms of trade and commerce. The community was depended on the neighboring Messenia that was wealthy in terms of agricultural resources. Sparta had conquered this region and used its wealth and agricultural resources to sustain its economy. The people of Messenia were forced to work as slaves or helots to Sparta and this led to revolts within the Messenia community who wanted to break free of the Spartan rule. Sparta managed to quell such efforts and hence focused its energies on building their warrior community to deal with such situations. The result was visible in the growth of Spartan community as a primarily warrior community where the males were trained from early years in warfare tactics. Individuals who were incapable of becoming a soldier lost their rights to become a Spartan citizen.  The Spartan males were not allowed to live with their families till the age of thirty and this was one of the major reasons behind the low population growth rate in Sparta. The Miletus community was significant in their contribution to philosophic thinking and formulating rational theories to explain the working of the physical universe in which they live.

The Peloponessian war had an adverse impact on the social and economic development of the Greek civilization. The economy of Athens suffered a severe setback. Sparta had initially emerged as a powerful force from this war but the rest of Greece communities aligned to fight Sparta in the Corinthian war that led Sparta to align with the Persians. The conflicts and ongoing warfare between the communities had a negative impact on the economic development of the civilization. Trade was affected and this led to increasing social degeneration and increase in criminal activities within the societies. The negative impact was evident in the field of cultural development too since troubled social systems did not encourage creativity and innovation in thought patterns. The thinking of the philosophers underlined a sense of criticism and cynicism in view of the social degeneration.

The growth of three Hellenistic kingdoms after the death of Alexander was another significant era in the history of Greek civilization. The Macedonians took advantage of the growing conflicts and wars between the Greek states to establish their empire. The Macedonian empire launched an attack on the neighboring states of Persia, Egypt and the Middle East. This mission led by Alexander resulted in the fragmentation of the conquered states into three distinct Hellenistic states that included Seleucid Asia, Antigonid Macedonia and Greece, and Ptolemaic Egypt. Initially the terms between these states were favorable and based on healthy trade and commerce that contributed to economic prosperity and development of social structure. However, over time these relations witnessed troubled times and gradual weakening of the Hellenistic powers.

The Roman civilization
The Romans were naturally a militant society because they constantly had to defend themselves from the invaders. Romans were descendents of early Indo-European settlers. Rome served as the most preferred port for the trading ships because of its geographical location gave it the strategic and commercial advantages. The trading ships were stopping at Rome and were not going further and they were getting protections by Rome from the see attackers.

In very early stage the Romans gave many interchangeable rights like intermarriages and legal migration between cities to Latin. Because of the liberal attitude of Rome there were less conflicts and it gave them a better chance of expansion within Italy. In contrary the Greece was very suspicious and jealous and because of that attitude the fights and divisions were common among Greece cities. As a system in the early stages the Rome was a monarchy and at later stages it was ruled by cruel rulers. At some point of time during 500 B.C.E the Romans revolted and that ended the kinship and brought the republic. The early Roman republic was full of fights and war and at later stags it started the policies of accommodation where the defeated people were asked to serve in army and thus giving them continued share in political and military success. In early stage of the republic system the aristocratic people called patricians were dominant but it consisted of 2 percent of the total population. The other 98 percent of the population called plebeians were deprived lot without any much privilege, less rights and say in the system and had to always work during war. This situation continued for a long time. During early 500 BCE the plebeians revolted and the system started to change. The plebeians were gradually given political and other rights. By the end of 287 B.C.E the plebeians got the final victory and were given right to elect their representative in general assemblies. But these families of plebeians started getting elected generation after generations and it became dynasty for them. By the end of 1st Century B.C.E even the even the patricians were feeling excluded from the system. This gave the rise of individual political agenda.

The cultural and intellectual growth of Rome happened very slowly. The writing was used very scarcely. The teaching and education system was family affair and the system of teaching was more of passing on the knowledge of trade and practices from father to the son. Agricultural and war was the main occupation for the majority of the population. Artisans, and trade development was minor. Till 289 B.C.E there was no standard coinage of its own from the Romans. The religions that assumed the character during the republican age of Romans continued for a longer time in the Roman history. During the late republican era in Roman history the influence of conquering Greece and Asia was very high. It poured huge wealth in Roman society and thus created various sections in the society based on wealth and as a consequence huge economic and social gaps among the people. The slavery system was prevalent the huge land holding and running the agricultural activities through the use of slaves was prevalent. Slavery was very much in the trade, household and artisans activities. Rome was one of the largest known economies in the history that was dependent entirely on slavery. Slavery was most accepted and taken-for-granted by Romans. The small farmers were not capable of competing with the large landlords have sold their farms to large landlords and went to the cities. The slavery based large scale farming has never brought the transition of farming activities to industrialism in the ancient Rome. The slaves were doing all the hard work and the farm activities so involvement of technology never happened. Lack of large scale manufacturing resulted in large number of unemployment and dissatisfaction among the people.  But the 1st century B.C.E almost a third of Romes population were dependent on grain freely distributed by the state.  

Impact of Greek civilization on Western civilization
The political ideas promoted by Greek civilization have special significance in the modern Western civilization. The growing emphasis of open trade system conceptualized by the Greeks has provided the western civilization with a new model of economic growth and development. The present growth of trade relations and social development is based on historical practices that have proved the significance of trade and commerce in building an affluent and powerful society.

One of the major contributions made by Greek civilization is the concept of democracy. The origin of democracy is traced to the ancient Greek civilization and many leaders were involved in promoting the democratic form of governance during this period. Pericles strengthened the concept of democratic governance by providing the masses with the right to elect their representatives to the official positions. Most of the constitutional practices prevalent in the present Western civilization had their origins in the ancient Greek history. This refers to voting rights of masses to elect their representatives to the governing board, rights of the citizens to vote for or against the decision of the governing body, proposal committees, and composition of modern judiciary system. The ancient practices promoted in the city of Athens implemented positive changes in the establishment of a proper jury system that enabled the masses to have their appeals heard in various levels of judiciary system.

It is significant to note that the Greek civilization contributed to the rich cultural development in the region and science. The historical growth of the civilization was a culminating point in the emergence and growth of modern mathematical, astronomical and scientific theories. Moreover, the philosophical views framed in the historical era still hold a significant place in the modern studies of culture and society.

Impact of Roman civilization on Western civilization
There were many aspects of the Roman civilization that were influenced by the Greek culture and this is evident in the development of arts and religious practices in Rome in the ancient times. The sports and entertainment pursuits such as gladiators and chariot races in the ancient Roman civilization have evolved today into car racing and athletic events that are widely popular today. However, one of the biggest influences of the ancient Roman civilization on the modern Western civilization has been on the religious views and ideals held by Christianity. The catholic beliefs promoted by the Romans have made a deep impact on Christianity and its followers all over the world. It was the source of spread of the religion to various parts of the world and imbibed a sense of oneness among all its followers. This has been the biggest impact of the ancient Roman civilization on the present day western civilization. The birth and spread of Christianity is the foundation stone for the development of Western civilization.

Another distinct area of influence of the ancient Roman civilization is visible in the modern day architecture that dominates the western civilization and growth. The use of the arch, dome and the motifs used by the Roman architects has been an integral part of the western architecture. The buildings designed by the western architects were greatly influenced by the Roman architecture that dominated the growth of the ancient civilization.

The ancient Roman civilization had a definite impact on the current evolution of the Western civilization. The roots of the legal system and parliamentary system are traced back to the Roman Senate that mirrored the present day corruption, greediness and double standards held by the parliamentarians today. The civilization was far removed from democratic concepts and theories unlike their Greek counterparts and this can be concluded as one of the major causes of its downfall. 

Cultural heritage and historical practices have no doubt paved the way for current practices and trends. The study of ancient civilizations provides an interesting insight into the way the past culture and political economic system have influenced the growth of modern society. Human beings have applied innovation in the ancient practices and applied past knowledge bases to design and invent new methods and applications that define the present activities and trends. This paper illustrates the fact that the roots of the current socio-economic development and practices lies in the past.

The Battle of Crcy is a major event in the European history. The Hundred Years War, The Battle of Crcy fought between France and England was a great struggle that lasted for more than hundred years (with several years in between without conflict). The battle commenced on 26th August 1346 in Northern France. There were violent battles and occasions in which ideals of chivalry were exhibited. The battle was fought at the French village of Crcy-en-Ponthieu near the English Channel, as Edward III of England marched his army from Normandy to Flanders. The result of the battle reavealed that foot soldiers who use simple longbows can defeat knights who are armed with complex arms. The battle proved that knight does not have any kind supremacy over others. Because of all this the battle of Crcy is termed as death knell of feudalism. The victory in this battle made England a major military power.

An English and Welsh army fought against an army comprising French, Flemings, Bohemians, Savoyards Germans, and Luxemburgers. The generals in the Battle of Crcy include King Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, and the king of France, Philip VI. The English army consisted of 4,000 knights and armed men, 7,000 English and Welsh archers. Apart from this there were 5,000 Welsh and Irish spearmen. In the battle of Crcy the English army with 12,000 to 16,000 members, led by  . Though the army of Philip VI heavily outnumbered the English army, the latter group was victorious because of their weaponry and tactics.

Following the commencement of war in 1337, the first war in the Hundred Years War Hundred Years War was the   Battle of Sluys Battle of Sluys was on 24 June 1340. Few years after the battle, Edward tried to attack France through.  He however failed in his endeavor because of unstable alliances and financial difficulties. Edward came up with a different plan six years later. Edward attempted to attack France through a different route. He launched a heavy raid along the lands of Normandy. He found success at the Battle of Blanchetaque Battle of Blanchetaque (on 24 August) and Caen (on 26 July). The plan of France to trap the English forces between the rivers of English escape resulted in the Battle of Crcy.

The battle is considered by many historians as the battle that marks the end of the classic chivalry. The Battle of Crcy also witnessed the first real use of  Europe. The political consequences of the battle are not ignorable. The result of the war was significant for who had financed and supplied resources for his journey to. Even though the English causalities were not serious, thousands of soldiers of the French army and the allied army dies. The counts of Flanders, Alenon, and King a French ally and Blois,  Duke of Lorraine Rudolph, Duke of Lorraine are among them the important people who died.  Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV from the House of Luxembourg House of Luxembourg had his father dead. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV also lost many of his knights. Charles himself was wounded in the war.

The Protestant Reformation
The 16th century in Europe was very much eventful. The artists and humanists of the Renaissance period make it a period of self-creativity and individualism. Humanists like Petrarch upheld the dignity of mankind. People like Machiavelli, at the same time, injected humanism into politics. Renaissance enabled the secularization of European society. Man is no longer the slave of his destiny now he is rather the architect of his destiny. Renaissance created the notion that man is responsible for his history. There are numerous events that need to be highlighted especially in the fields of literature and the arts. The greatest affair of the 16th century Europe and the most revolutionary incident was nothing but the Protestant Reformation. Reformation forced people to be either a Catholic or Protestant. This was a mandatory choice to be made. In the context of the crucial religious wars happened in the 16th and 17th centuries, people had to be either a Catholic or a protestant.

The most dominant figure in the Reformation period was. Luther happened to enter the University of Erfurt, which the place of a conflict between the Renaissance humanists and the Scholastics, who mixed theology and medieval philosophy. Luther rejected the world after he had an encounter with the power of God. He recognized that he can no longer recognize faith with his worldly desires and ambitions. God spoke to him through the passage from the Epistles of St. Paul For the justice of God is revealed from faith to faith in that it is written, for the just shall live by faith. Luthers advice to the Church to return to the original teachings of the Bible led to the new traditions in Christianity. It also resulted in the Counter-Reformation in the Roman Catholic Church.

This finally culminated in the formation of the Council of Trent. Martin Luthers translation of the Bible presented a standard version of the German language and novel principles and styles to the very art of translation. The hymns he wrote triggered the development of congregational singing found in Christian gatherings. His marriage with a former num started the practice of clerical marriage among Christian groups.