West European Studies

There is no single and concrete definition of the Enlightenment largely due to the fact that it was not an aspect confined to one region. Yet, the Enlightenment has often been defined as a movement that swept the Western nations between the 1670s and 1790s affecting the major Protestant nations of Europe, the United Provinces and England and then spread into neighboring countries.  The movement then spread into France where, headed by Voltaire and Montesquieu, the French onwards took the leading position in the movement. During the Enlightenment, most of Europe experienced a vast social and political transformation that was unlike any other ever witnessed on the continent. The foundations of European autocratic authority were greatly shaken and during the 18th Century, a kind of intellectual environment came into being in which man developed a new-found confidence in his ability to have a clear understanding of the past that would help to improve the present and establish an outline for his future. One of the Enlightenment leaders was the English philosopher John Locke.

John Locke
John Locke was a renowned Enlightenment philosopher who made tremendous contributions to the fields of religion, politics, government and psychology. He is largely known as a political scientist and psychologist and through the Enlightenment, he and others provided Europe and the world with a new view of live that was based on a unified desire for progress or controlled changes. In the midst of his intellectual environment, John Locke promoted the power of human reason to an exceptional level, helped to do away with emotion and mystery and provided a good foundation for a new generation that was more than willing to completely do away with the unnecessary burden that a theological view of the world provided. In modern society, John Locke is hailed for the liberal political philosophy that he formulated and advocated for as well as for drawing out a theory of knowledge which paid great significance to the importance of a proper learning environment or atmosphere in the learning process. In broader terms, Locke continues to be classified as one of the fathers of the 18th Century Age of Enlightenment, a period during which the Western experience about individual male self-respect and dominance were greatly advanced in such spheres as religion, politics, economic life, social organization and education. He is also recognized for his remarkable variety of interests which ranged from political theory and the study of knowledge to colonial administration, biblical commentary, medicine, botany and economics. During his age, professional competence was quite rare but Locke exhibited a very varied and remarkable professional aptitude.

The philosopher John Locke was born in 1632 in the small English village of Wrington in Somerset County to John Locke Sr. and his wife Anne Locke. The senior John Locke was an attorney as well as small landowner and John Lockes family was classified as moderately comfortable by the standards of that time. The family lands that his father had acquired later proved very helpful for John Locke as they helped him to maintain a private source of income even if he never became wealthy. At the time of Lockes birth, King Charles I of the house of Stuart ruled both England and Scotland and English politics had begun to go through an unstable period a situation that prevailed until close to Lockes death in 1704. England was going through a lot of significant upheavals one of which was the challenge to the official churchs continued position as the official spiritual and temporal authority and its replacement by a secular-modern nation-state. John Locke lived during the Thirty Years War which had wiped out thirty percent of Central Europes population and although there was no prediction about his life, Locke was to play a very important role in the political developments of England. He especially grew deeply concerned about the expanding power of the state and the implications that such expansion had on the genuineness of the religious life of an individual.

During his early life, John Locke studied at the prestigious Westminster School and was in school when King Charles I was beheaded in nearby Whitehall in 1649 although the students were kept away from the event. Locke studied Greek and Latin in a very harsh environment characterized by regular beatings and severe punishments. Nevertheless, he was a very industrious student of Westminster School and was able to secure a scholarship at the Christ Church College in Oxford where he became a student. Locke maintained academic excellence and in 1656, he attained a Bachelor of Arts Degree from Oxford University for his study on ancient languages and the literature associated with them. He remained at Oxford, working as an administrator and teacher but also studying philosophy and theology during his free time. Locke also developed interests in the study of medicine and he attained an MB degree in 1674. The young Locke had also inherited a very strong Protestant faith from his parents which played a very influential role upon his future intellectual advancement as well as the political choices that he would make in life. It was the political allegiances that he maintained that led to his expulsion from Christ Church College and his subsequent escape to exile between 1683 and 1689. The period that Locke spent in exile however proved to be the most productive season of his life as he gradually turned into a very remarkable philosopher of his time. His name has gone down in history for three great works that he wrote during his stay I exile namely the Second Treatise of Government, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and A Letter on Toleration all which were first printed in 1689.

John Lockes fame as an Enlightenment philosopher revolved around the human mind and its ability to know the world. In his works the Essay Concerning Human Understanding, a human mind is born completely blank and knowledge of the world comes through experiences, helped by the five senses. Sensation and reflection according to Locke helped human beings to arrive at such ideas as infinity, space and time.  Lockes philosophy also addresses the field of ethics and his theories were based upon the belief that humanity was naturally good and that when conducted reasonably, the pursuit for pleasure and happiness ultimately leads to cooperation and eventually contributes to the general welfare. Locke suggested that private pleasures must not undermine the ultimate good of the wider community or even the afterlife and that religion can only be passed on through persuasion and not force. He also argued that religious differences could not be solved by way of war and the state must never interfere with the religious matters of its citizens. Yet, although he advocated broad religious freedom, Locke felt that legislation should be made against Roman Catholicism and atheism as hostile doctrines to religion and the state. Some of Lockes religious writings included The Reasonableness of Christianity and the Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul published in 1695 and 1705-7 respectively. His ideas have continued to influence the field of philosophy for a long time. But perhaps his greatest fame as a philosopher arose from his political theory. Locke believed that reason, tolerance and happiness were characteristics of the original state of nature and that in such state, all people were not only independent and equal but also had no right to cause harm to one anothers life, liberty, health or even possessions. According to Locke, social contract formed the base of the state and natural law was the best guide for the state. Locke believed that every human being deserved a right to what his or her labor has produced and his policy of checks and balances within the government greatly influenced the laying down of the Constitution of the United States.

In 1666, John Locke established friendship with Anthony Ashley Cooper who later became the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury. Locke served as both doctor and personal adviser to Cooper for quite some time. Such a friendship also helped Locke to secure various civil and diplomatic posts until the time Shaftesbury lost his office in 1675. While in government service, he closely observed the leadership and soon became political advisor to such leaders as Edward Clarke, Sir William Younge, Lord Monmouth, Earl of Pembroke and Solicitor-General John Somers among others. Locke maintained a very active political life and due to his contributions as well as those of other philosophers, the modern state was carved out of Enlightenment Europe within a political background that was different from the ruling monarchs. There was separation of powers whereby the articles defining an office and the person holding it became two separate entities. People no longer held political office because of their social ranking in society but because they professionally qualified to hold such office. Although religious conflict continued between Catholics and Protestants, political-economic issues between states were established and overseas commerce blossomed.

Although Locke had a good number of female friends, he never married and therefore raised no children of his own. He was however very fond of children and displayed a great influence in promoting more coherent and humane feelings towards their upbringing as well as education. Such an attitude towards children was influenced by the harsh environment he had experienced at Westminster School. Some Thoughts Concerning Education is one of his published works towards this cause. According to Henry, Locke is said to have stated in one such works that, Those that intend ever to govern their children should begin it whilst they are very little, and look that they perfectly comply with the will of their parents  Most of Lockes works were published anonymously. Locke also wrote extensively on economic, monetary, political and public affairs. To a lesser extent, John Locke published literary criticisms a good example being his criticism of Nicholas Ma lebrance, the French philosopher who proposed that all power revolved around God. He also replied in writing to several criticisms made towards his work

Conclusion
Until his death in 1704, John Locke enjoyed tremendous loyal favor and public esteem, besides the great fame that surrounded his works, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. He also served in a number of official duties the most notable one being a Commissioner of the Board of Trade whose role was to oversee the affairs of the American colonies. Although Locke enjoyed public office especially because of the good salary it attracted and had also acquired some sort of international fame, his desire remained very much bent towards the pursuit of intellectual and scholarly interests especially towards the last years of his life. Prevailing poor health took away the life of this great philosopher at the age of 72 but even at the time of his death, John Locke is said to have had a very composed mind.