West European Studies

After the Great War there were many changes throughout Europe, especially in the development of fundamental forms of government, including Communism and Fascism.  This revival of the authoritarian governments throughout Europe presented an era in which the individual was subjugated to the state and its needs.  By 1938, the nation of Czechoslovakia was the only country in Eastern Europe not bound by totalitarianism.

In Western Europe, France, Britain, Scandinavia, and Switzerland were liberal democracies.  The dictatorships of Eastern Europe rejected these liberal ideas in favor of a government that exercised complete control over its people.  At the end of World War I, the Czar and his family were murdered, and were replaced by the Bolshevik government.  The Bolsheviks were Communists who took their lead from Vladimir Lenin.  Lenin put together a government dependent on the party for progress and growth (Kreis, 2009).

Lenin became a model for Joseph Stalin, in Russia, Adolph Hitler, in Germany, and for Benito Mussolini in Italy.  These totalitarian governments took complete control in their nations with the state controlling technology and communication (Kreis, 2009).

Germany had political and military goals that could be traced back to World War I.  Hitlers emergence into the political realm began in 1921 as chairman of the National Socialist German Workers Party, or the Nazis.  Two years later Hitler attempted to overthrow the German Weimar Republic, but failed.  He was jailed.  During the course of his period in jail, Hitler decided that the only effective means of taking over the German government was through the ballot box (Bentley, Ziegler, 2008).  It was during this period in jail that Hitler wrote the book Mein Kampf, which featured the theme of racial superiority and Jewish inferiority (Kreis, 2009).

After leaving jail, Hitler and his Nazi Party began to have strong appeal to the poor and downtrodden in Germany.  Many people were disillusioned and criticized democracy for the misfortunes of the German state.  Many were still angry over having to accept the humiliating peace treaty at Versailles where German was forced to accept responsibility for the Great War.  Many individuals lost all their savings during the Great Depression which hit Germany hard.  Hitler promised these Germans that he could create a new, and respected German state and end the misfortune (Bentley, 2008).

As the Nazi Party grew in numbers, they slowly gained members in the German Parliament.  German President Paul Von Hindenburg offered Hitler the post of chancellor, and by 1933 to 1035, he centralized the nations party, took control of the police, removed enemies from power, and purged members of the judiciary who opposed the Nazi goals (Bentley, 2008).

The Great Depression had great impact on the German state.  The electorate was angry with high unemployment rates.  In 1929, unemployment was 1.3 million in Germany.  The number of unemployed jumped to five million in 1930.  Forty-three percent of the population, at that time, was without work (Kreis, 2009).  Hitler offered the people of German economic growth, and political and military restitution.  He promised the people that he would provide both work and food, and he followed-through on his promise.  By 1937 there were only one million out of work Germans.  Hitler turned that figure around creating a labor shortage by the next year.  At the same time, the German standard of living grew by 20 percent (Kreis, 2009).

Fascists governments across Europe created a sound economy in the midst of a world-wide depression.  Between the two great wars, fascism grew throughout Europe with large political parties in both Germany and Italy.  There were a good many fascists in Britain, but they accomplished little legislatively.  However, people such as Benito Mussolini, of Italy, created a totalitarian state of absolute rule.  Nevertheless, such absolute rule helped to create quick jobs for the people of the fascists states, and the public was supportive of their actions. It was clear the authoritative methods allowed the Germans to overcome quickly many of the symptoms of economic crisis and turned the nation toward recovery (Boyanowski, 2001).

After Hitler threatened to invade Czechoslovakia in 1938, leaders of the allies met with Germany, and its allies.  Hitler told everyone present that unless the British supported the German plan to take over the Sudetenland, he would invade Czechoslovakia.  Britain agreed to the German terms. Hitler said, We have assured all our immediate neighbors of the integrity of their territory as far as Germany is concerned.  That is no hollow phase it is our sacred willthe Sudetenland is the last territorial claim which I have to make in Europe (Statements by leading Nazis, 1938).

After the Munich Agreement in 1938, many people felt that allied supporters were not hard enough on Hitlers position.  Others believed Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain had prevented war.  Chamberlain told the public  Ever since I assumed my present office, my main purpose has been to work for the pacification of Europe, for the removal of those suspicious and those animosities which have long poisoned the air.  The quest of Czechoslovakia is the latest and perhaps the most dangerous.  Now that we have gotten past it, I feel that it may be possible to make further progress on the road to sanity (Parliamentary Debate 1938).

One of the major factors that led to the start of the Second World War was the Treaty of Versailles, signed June 28, 1919, which formally ended WWI.  The treaty was a compromise that attempted to meet the interests of those involved in negotiation (Sharp, 2005).  The individuals who drafted the treaty believed it formed the basis for Europe to live in friendship and peace.  However, the Treaty of Versailles did either, and paved the way for the start of World War II (Lu, 2002).

Scholar George Kennan said the Treaty of Versailles was a very silly, humiliating and punitive peace imposed on Germany (Lu, 2002).  After the treaty, the following helped to bring about the second war  the vindictiveness of the peace terms, the economic miseries, the exclusion of Russia and Germany from the peace talks, and the attempt to get reparations from an exhausted people (Lu, 2002).

According to Royall, (1930), the treaty imposed the guilt for the war squarely on the back of Germany.  The reparation commission met in April of 1920.  It stated that the total liability of Germany was 33,000,000,000 (Royall 1930).  By the end of the first war, all belligerents of Europe stood depleted economically.  Germany believed the Treaty of Versailles, brought about the social, physical, political, economic, and moral death of the nation and its people (Lu, 2002)

The motivations behind Hitlers move towards war included the reversal of the controversial Treaty of Versailles. The Germans wanted their country to return to its grandeur and be a great power in the world.  With the Nazis in charge, the main motivations of the party included anti-Semitism, race, and Lebensraum especially in Eastern Europe (Bartov, 2001).

The anti-Semitism that swept through Europe has long been an issue within Europe.  Some scholars say its roots go back to the Crusades, and others mention a 1010 massacre of Jews by the French and Germans.  Nevertheless, a racist variant on anti-Semitism drove the Germans into policies aimed at total elimination of the Jews (Gustenfled, 2005).

The Final Solution moved from an idea Hitler had to implement after the war to active implementation during World War II.  Hitler saw the Jews as mostly responsible for the 1918 debacle, and wanted them eliminated from society.  He was inspired by Lanz von Liebenfels, a monk, who believed in the inferiority of the Jews and supremacy of the German race. Until 1941 the Germans actively encouraged that Jews leave the nation.  But after the Wannsee Conference, it was agreed that all Jews in Germany and occupied areas would be sent to ghettos where they would be held until they were sent to labor camps or to the gas chamber.

Hitler spoke to a group of supporters in Berlin in 1942.  He made the statement  And we say that the war will not end as the Jews imagine it will, namely with the uprooting of the Aryans, but the result of this war will be the complete annihilation of the Jews (Statement of leading Nazis 1943).

The areas of Romania, Croatia and Slovakia agreed to Germanys demands.  (Jersak, 2003). There was little or no bias against Jews in Bulgaria.  Although laws restricting Jewish rights were enacted in Bulgaria prior to the war, most of the nations Jewish population survived.  The Commissariat for Jewish issues met with Germans to come up with a plan to rid Bulgaria of its Jews.  Bulgaria was to transport 20,000 Jews to the Nazis.  These Jews were to come from occupied areas of Macedonia and Thrace.  Officials drew up plans to murder the non-nationals first.  More than 11,000 Jews from Thrace and Macedonia were sent to their deaths.  Romania did not want Jews returned to its territory. Only half of the Jews from Romania survived the war (Brown-Fleming, 2006). Croatia wanted the Jews deported, as did Slovakia (Jersak, 2003).

The problem of the Jews was not as easy for the Germans to deal with in other occupied territories. Italy treated Jews and non-Jews equally and did not follow Germanys lead.  In occupied France, Germany also had its hands full trying to achieve complicity in the policy.  In addition, Hungary refused to include Hungarian Jews in the policy.  Germany said that Hungary must follow the program and negotiations ensued.  To gain its way, Germany took military control of Hungary.  The Hungarian Jews were immediately sent to gas chambers (Jersak, 2003).

The leaders of the Axis powers included Adolph Hitler, of Germany, and Benito Mussolini of Italy.  Later Emperor Hirohito of Japan would join the Axis powers after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.  The allies were led by Neville Chamberlain and later Winston Churchill, of Britain. France was led by Charles De Gaulle.  Franklin Roosevelt was the American President who declared war on the Axis powers in 1941.  After being attacked by Germany, the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, entered the war.  Both the United States and Soviet Union entered the war after provocation by members of the Axis powers.

In 1939, the Germans invaded Poland and within only a few weeks, crushed the military of the small state.  This major action taken by the Germans helped to initiate war in Europe.

In general, the entire world changed with the advent of new technology during the second was of the 20th century.  Much change occurred in the area of rocketry.  This technology was largely the idea of German scientists who would flee their home nation and come to the United States before the war.  These men were responsible for the development of cruise and ballistic missiles as well as the development of atomic weaponry (Mindell, 2010).  Aside from weaponry, there was much contribution in the area of radar, and medical advancements.  All of these inventions helped to bring the world into a rapidly advancing technological society.  One of the most important advances of the war was the use of the blitzkrieg.  In the time between the Polish defeat in 1939 and the invasion of the country of Norway, the battle was quiet.  Propaganda was used to blare messages along the German and French border when the armies were posed for attack.  The Germans needed iron from the nation of Sweden.  Therefore, the Germans attacked Sweden and secured its flank running in the north.  It then invaded the countries of Norway and Denmark.  Then, in May of 1940, the Germans unleashed its blitzkrieg.  The Germans moved with lightening speed to take the nations of Belgium and the Netherlands.  The blitzkrieg was an open and fast warfare style (Blitzkrieg, 1940).

In the implementation of the blitzkrieg, the Germans used the first aircrafts and long range weaponry.  The blitzkrieg would hit at a single position in the enemy line and push through it.  The blitzkrieg was very effective in the implementation of the battle.

Adolph Hitler never hid the fact that he wanted complete control of all means of communication within the nation.  Through the use of effective propaganda, Hitler was popularized the Nazi Party and demonize the allies and Jews.  Under Joseph Goebbels Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, leadership assured a troubled public that Hitler opposed war, while at the same time preparing the population for conflict (Coupe, 1998).  German propaganda was aimed at reaching people of all ages.

Three main conferences were held at the end of the war to decide what steps to take after German defeat.  In the Tehran Agreement, the American President, British Prime Minister, and the Premier of the Soviet Union met to discuss how to destroy remaining German military forces.  The men drafted the following declaration in 1943, No power on earth can prevent our destroying the German armies by land, their U-Boats by sea and their war plants from the air (The Tehran Conference, 1997).

At the Yalta Conference in 1945 the allied leaders decided on the fate of Europe after the war.  The leaders established the border of Poland, and how to partition Germany as well as Berlin.  In addition, Franklin Roosevelt wanted the creation of a United Nations (United States History, 2001).  The decisions that were drafted at Yalta resulted in the carving up of the modern world.

At the Potsdam conference, allied leaders agreed on the issues of the occupation and reconstruction of the nation of Germany.  Also, included in the Potsdam Declaration was the message to Japan to surrender its forces, or be destroyed (United States History 2001).

In WWI, Germany lost 1,800,000 individuals.  In WWII, it lost 7,060,000.  Civilian deaths in WWII were two million, not counting Jews lost in concentration camps (United States History, 2001)

The United Nations was established after World War II in 1945.  The idea of the UN is to open dialog between nations and work to prevent war on a global basis.  Whether the United Nations is effective today is a much debated issue.

In conclusion, the nation of Germany has gone through many changes since the end of WWII.  After the war, it was divided into different quadrants, one for each of the allied powers.  The East German quadrant was under the thumb of the Soviet Union.  However, many changes have occurred since the fall of the Berlin Wall in the late 1980s.  Today, Berlin is open to travel with no limitation.  East Germany is no more.  For that matter, the Soviet Union has also collapsed indicating that communism in its purist form is not effective in its governmental form.

Andrew Gurrs Playgoing in Shakespeare London attempted to settle a question long been raised regarding the nature of the William Shakespeares audience, primarily in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. It has long been argued whether Shakespeares plays are elitist or mass-oriented, as this can be deemed important especially in the study of classical literature.

Gurr first approached the study with a thorough class analysis of the people in Shakespeares time. He proposed the existence of the high elite, the middle or burgesses class, and the artisans. He gave special focused on the middle class, and claimed that Shakespeares plays are in fact thematically diverse. He claimed that Shakespeares early plays are sort of comedic and light, while his latter works are most pessimistic and realist, giving more space for literary experimentation. Shakespeare also explored historical and semi-historical themes, as in Othello and Mark Anthony.  The diversity of the themes also gave rise to changes in his audiences, considering that each class has its own taste. Hence, the nature of Shakespeares audience did not dwell in extremes (elitist and mass oriented) but rather, his works made a trip in the class continuum. Gurr also employed certain architectural observations to disprove these two assumptions.

However, his focus on the middle class appeared itself as some sort of synthesis of the contention. He gave credit to how the middle class remained loyal audience to Shakespeares works and thus giving Shakespeare a core audience group. Despite the thematic changes that permeated in his works, this group of middle class appeared as the staple group, especially as Shakespeares plays also remained loyal to some extent to this class by making plays that catered chiefly for citizen appetites.
A rather blurry picture

Gurrs book Playgoing in Shakespeares London provided a substantive picture of William Shakespeares audience. It provided a considerable amount of demographic and anthropological data regarding some of the mainstays in his audience included in relatively thick appendices, giving his observations firm and rock-solid data grounding.

As said earlier, similar attempts of this feat had already been done, most notably by Alfred Harbage (Shakespeares Audience and Shakespeare and the R ival Traditions) and Ann Jennalie Cook (The Audience of Shakespeares Plays A Reconsideration, Shakespeare Studies, VII), focusing their studies primarily on determining the nature of the audience in Shakespeares plays.  The two, however, came up with different findings. Harbage came up with a conclusion that Shakespeares audience is primarily those of the artisan or working class. Cook, on the other hand, said that it is quite the contraryShakespeares audience is made up of the upper classes. However, Gurr claimed that the two that the writers dwelled on two extremes, leading to a compartmentalizing analysis. Gurr claimed that the two scholars denied Shakespeares audience a human element, that which is dynamic, changing and definitely not static, which is precisely what the two did.

Gurr claimed that the audience in Shakespeares era is anchored in the middle class (or citizens, as the called it). The peripheral audience of this middle class changes, depending on the nature of the plays. Nonetheless, the middle class remained the staunchest and most stable audience.

I think this observation by Gurr is plausible, but quite safe-playing. He argued that Shakespeares audience changes however, these changes are rather common-sensical, and in the end, Gurrs work remained rather blurred, especially regariding the matter of determining the exact nature of Shakespeares audience. Moreover, his claim that Shakespeares audience is primarily the common citizen or the middle class is  not really a direct answer to the question he seeks to answer. He even claimed that this middle class is not really a small group, but nonetheless they can be considered a core group. Hence, this group cannot be considered as the primary audience. In this sense is where I think the book remained somewhat vague and inadequate, making the conclusion a rather blurry picture of what Gurr must have set out to do.

Conclusion
Andrew Gurrs book is a very important contribution to the discourse of Shakespearean literature and its (or any form of literature for that matter) to its social and historical context. Gurr made a plausible synthesis of the two assumptions that Shakespeares audiences are either elites or working class people. He provided that Shakespeares main audience is primarily the common, middle class citizens. However, in doing so, he remained vague in his findings and therefore provided only a safe synthesis, rather than a concrete picture of the Elizabethan society.

The nature of terrorism reflects socio-economic and political elements that govern society. Historically, the underprivileged, or those who thought they were unfairly exploited by the ruling class, have resisted this domination with both philosophical ideologies and revolutionary radicalism. From the time Karl Marx attacked western capitalism as the machine which oppressed societys working class, there have been similar but modified reactionary responses to destabilize the status quo. However, the complexity of the issue is not the nature of the conflict between the revolutionaries and their opponents, but rather the blind arrogance and outrageousness with which the self proclaimed liberators carry out their war against oppression.

In his book, The Dynamite Club How a Bombing in Fin-de-Sicle Paris Ignited the Age of Modern Terror, John Merriman traces the events leading to the bombing of Caf Terminus in Paris, France, in 1894 by a revolutionary radical named Emile Henry. Departing from previous anti-government campaigns that targeted only the principal targets (government officials and representatives), the Caf Terminus bombing was a blind hit which killed even the civilians that the movement was supposedly fighting for. In the wider perspective, the incidence relates to modern terrorism, which equally operates on the principle that the end will justify the means. Accordingly, the anarchists believed that whatever aids the triumph of the revolution is ethical all that hinders it is unethical and criminal.Notable are the operations of terrorist group al Qaeda, whose jihadist philosophy echoes the spirit of anarchism in the 19th century. Similarly, the religious convictions that inform suicide bombings in modern terrorism reflect the anarchist ideology that the attackers were fighting in the interest of the larger society by resisting power governments that controlled, censured and manipulated the ruled . By critically reviewing John Merrimans The Dynamite Club, the essay argues that modern terrorism is a metamorphosis of 19th century anarchism that was triggered by socio-economic inequalities and political repression.

The Dynamite Club is a crystal-clear portrayal of the inherent conflict between the haves and haves not in society. More often than not, these conflicts arise from social inequalities that create a huge gap between the poor and the rich, thus provoking a sprit of resentment and hatred by the former towards the latter. In this book, John Merriman, a history professor at Yale University, captures succinctly the elements of social segregation that characterized 19th century French society. It revolves around the life and times of Emile Henry, who, though learned and imbued with a scholarly mien, becomes a renegade and social rebel due to the exploitative oppression of the commons in the hands of the ruling class and the selfish bourgeois family that ought to be eliminated.. Beginning as a campaigner for social change through the political and economical reformation of the French society, he goes overboard with radical enthusiasm and takes the path of anarchism. He notes that Emile left socialism behind, believing that its intrinsically hierarchical nature rendered it incapable of changing the existing order of things.In this account, Merriman portrays the gradual degeneration of inter-class differences into violent reactions by the complainants of social oppression. It suggests that society is characterized by constant conflicts among its various groups, who could very easily resort to violence as a means of protestation. At the same time, it bares the collective responsibility of socio-economic and political institutions in the ensuing crisis. In the French society, for instance, the ruling class was partly responsible for creating a man-eat-man society that pitied the poor against the rich. The rise of anarchism, therefore, was not an isolated development of deviant elements in society, but the product of harsh and repressive economic and political conditions. By lacking the voice necessary to make their grievances heard in high places, the activists for the rights of the oppressed subjects resorted to violence as the one surest way of drawing the authorities attention.

Modern terrorism works in a similar manner. Most of the witnessed terrorist attacks against humanity are justified by the rebels as a protestation to political domination and interference of foreign powers in other sovereign territories. In this regard, al Qaedas architects have repeatedly denounced the USs foreign policy on the Arab world, and opposed its military occupation in Afghanistan, Iraqi and elsewhere. However, in a similar tactic as that employed by the militias of the Dynamite Club, al Qaeda targets innocent victims since its hand of vengeance could not reach the real targets at the White House. It is at this point, when they through caution to the winds as Emile Henry did more than a century ago, that their agenda, however noble intended, loses its relevance and failed to reconcile morality with the laws of nature.

Nonetheless, it offers insight into the mindset of terrorists, which compels them to engage in indiscriminate destruction to make their point. To the anarchist French revolutionaries, it was stretching the limits of logic to such an absurd degree by arguing that the solution was to destroy every social institution, so that a new society could rise from the remnants of destructions. They preached to rely upon the unquenchable spirit of destruction and annihilation which the perpetual spring of new life. In regard to contemporary terrorism, the reasoning is that the enemys friend is an enemy as well, and therefore the real target could be weakened from any angle either economically or politically. It explains the groups persistent attacks on their enemies foreign interests, such as the November 28 2002 bombing of the Israel owned Paradise Hotel in Kikambala, Kenya, and major hits of American embassies around the world. According to the terrorists logic, if the enemy could not be hit hardest where it hurts most, then any hit could drive the point home.

By extension, it reflects the global presence of terrorist networks and the reality of foreign influence and technology on terrorism. In the anarchist movement, Emile was operating under the shadows of Russian ideologists Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. Scientific innovations such as the discovery of dynamites explosive nature, on the other hand, aided the anarchists cause significantly. Not surprisingly, poems were composed that sang of it thus
At last a toast to science
To dynamite that is the force
The force in our own hands
The world gets better day by day

In a similar manner in the case of modern terrorism, the foreign business ventures of Saudi Arabia born Osama bin Laden in countries like Afghanistan, Turkey and other Arab countries made those nations hotbeds for terrorist activities, which in turn placed them on a collision path with the US. Similarly, modern technology such as the internet has promoted its networking activities throughout the world. Equally, access to weapons of mass destruction has made modern day terrorist a great threat to the survival of humanity.

The responses that the activities of anarchism provoked from the French authorities are echoed by the over-board reactions of  US War on Terror initiated by the Bush administration following the September 11 attacks by al Qaeda. What is evident is the fear factor inspired by the recklessness and unpredictability of terrorists in their activities they can hit anytime, from anywhere in the world. Coupled with their usual threats- perhaps to keep their enemies nervous and forever grappling with possibilities of danger (and they often succeed on this score), the powers that be (read the USA) sometimes exaggerate the situation with swift and pompous counter-attacks, which, like the French governments intrusion into civilian life to tame anarchism, also violates the rights of innocent victims. This is exemplified by the series of air strikes upon imagined al Qaeda hide-outs, leaving behind horrid scenes of civilian casualties.

Finally, the Dynamite Club portrays a strong link between ideology and terrorism. While the French anarchists were brainwashed by foreign literature and anarchist philosophy that leaned towards communist tendencies, which is evident of Henrys celebration of a school prize with the slogan Long live the Commune. on the need to clean up the mess created by the established political and economic institutions, modern terrorism leans heavily on religious ideology such as the holy war (jihad), which guarantees martyrs of the war eternity in the after-life. This belief of martyrdom is singled out as the force behind the prevalence of suicide bombings, which have become the signature of terrorism.

In conclusion, John Merriman succeeds in critically portraying the underlying forces that drive terrorism in society. He particularly points out socio-economic inequalities and repressive political regimes as the triggers of rebellion inter-class conflicts. Similarly, movements, 19th century anarchism and modern terrorism are informed by philosophical and religious ideologies. In their desperate measures to be heard, the underprivileged resort to violence as the only language that will prick the conscience of those in power. Modern terrorism, on its part, follows a similar pattern of indiscriminate violence against innocent victims. This notwithstanding, however, the concerned authorities respond in an equally destructive and exaggerated manner, such that it blurs the line of distinction between the character of terrorist groups and that of legitimate governments.

a. Issues leading to division of the church during the schism of 1378   1415
The schism of 1378-1415 involved a division in the church due to existence of two popes. The italians elected a pope as St.Urban VI to succeed St.Peter. The French cardinals at the same time ailed to agree with the italians and elected their own pope called Clement VII. One of the issues leading to the churchs division was the fact that, the christedom couldnt agree on which pope to accept. The second issue was the fact that the two popes were in two different places, ssince St.Urban remained in Rome while Clement VII withdrew to Avignon according to Nelson (1999). In addition, Nelson also argues that there was growing corruption in both papacies,expansion  of heresy and the continuation of a cchurch without real leadership or discipline.

b. How the schism served to undermine the authority of the popes
The papal authority was undermined since financial decisions grew worse during avignon papacy, as there were two papal capitals as well as two administrations. Secular leaders also supported either one pope or the other causing lack of unified support to a single papacy. Furthermore, according to Nelson (1999), theological situation became difficult as the two papal organizations condemned the other.

c. New Religious ideas that emerged
A number of new religious ideas emerged as a result of the great Schism of 1378-1415. Such religious ideas were as an attempt to resolve the issue of dual papacy and try to regain a single papacy to the church. Some of these religious ideas according to Nelson (1999) included the following theological faculty of the university of Paris was asked to find a resolve to the problem, the popes were also asked to abdicste for the good of christedom, influential writers decided that monarchy was superior to the church. In addition, Priestly powers were placed in the hands of individuals which later formed the foundation for the refformation of the protestant churches. Furthermore, intellectuals and reformists decided that the churchs sovereighnity rested on its members (Nelson, 1999).This reformists supported their ideas by arguing on the basis of the scripture according to paul and the early church, History acoording to Constantin and the council of Nicaea among others.

d.How the need of the Church to re-establish authority manifested itself in the Fifteenth century.
Th e church had a need to re-establish its authority was manifested in the fifteenth century in the following ways The church formed the council of Pisa according to Nelson (1999) in an attempt to find a solution.This council cardinals decided to depose both pontifs and elected a third in 1408.All the cardinals were excommunicated by the two popes,making matters even worse by creating a third pope. By 14 15 the issues involving the three popes such as increased corruption and heresy led to the Holy Roman Emperor throwing his support behind concilliarists and arranged for another council meeting (Nelson,1999). These attempts were manifested by the church as a way of trying to resolve the issues. In this council,also reffered to as the council of constance, the three  phantom popes   were deposed in favour of a new pope by the name Martin V. This new pontiff was based at Rome and had a greater responsibility of re-establishing the position of the pope as Gods representative on earth (Nelson, 1999).

Basically, the book is about what Cressy considers as the transgressions and travesties that happened in England between the years 1560 up to 1650. As the title suggested, the stories are considered as travesties and transgressions. Often, they are about how selected actions and occurrences, events and phenomenon in the English social culture at the time deviated from what is socially accepted, thus making it, at the very least odd, and at its worst, a travesty or an act of transgression against the normal way of life. This is actually a collection of 15 different stories. The story of the Agnes Bowkers Cat, as seen in the title, acts as a prelude to the type of stories that the readers would find in this book, stories that tackle a wide range of topics. On the onset, it appears to be disconnected but in the end is nonetheless connected because they share one common characteristic. All of these weird oddities happened in one place and involved the same people in the same society. The Agnes Bowkers Cat story is just one of the many different stories. In this story, a woman convinced a midwife to cooperate in her plan to tell the world about how she was made pregnant by a demon, only for the investigators to discover a dead cat and in the end dismiss any charges of witchcraft or child killing in the process. Although the story was nonetheless weird and odd, indeed, it was a travesty to the modern society and modern day social practices and norms.

There are many other different stories too. These are all quite capable of being shocking, funny, entertaining, engrossing, gross, and all in all capable of putting forward many different possible reactions to this kind of story telling that Cressy has created via this book. There is the story of the Adamites, a group which is believed to be strongly religious and is somewhat involved in the practice of nudity and nude expressions as well as sex orgies like how other religious groups practiced it. The discussion of the Adamites in the book brings forward the discussion and analysis on the social condition. These perceived conditions are either imagined by the people who wanted this to become a reality or are merely a successful effort of extensive propaganda that infects those who are easily gullible to such stories. An example of this story is the case of the Adamites.

Indeed, the discussion and stories in the book varies strongly and appears to veer to and from many different directions. The titles itself are already giveaways to what the stories will be all about. For example, there is a section for seduction, deception and distress which, undoubtedly, discusses that exact topics and the in and in-betweens of such topic in the context of 16th-17th century England. There are also hints of religion like the prospect of excommunication and the burial of ones horse followed by what Cressy describes as the battle of words raging between the pulpit where the priest preaches and the parish where actual lives happen. Before reaching to a conclusion on page 281 of the book, Cressy will speak of and break apart other stories like how people position themselves as traditional or non-traditional believers (or even non believers), the practice of vandalism and how it is being looked upon by society, among others.

Indeed, the book Agnes Bowkers Cat Travesties and Transgressions in Tudor and Stuart England is an interesting read. It is not ones typical coffee table or bedside table reading because of how it can be offensive to those who are caught unprepared regarding the books contents. In reading the book, it is quite noticeable how the author was arguing for, emphasizing and pointing out certain right and wrong things about the society. It appears that the book was the authors form not just of documenting the life in England and chronicling an important chapter in the history of the country and its people but also providing a social criticism for what has happened and for has been happening. Cressy has had some clear points and position although what he was implying in other cases are vague and unclear in its definition of the lines and where Cressy exactly stood there.

For example, the author all in all was obviously attracted by this particular cultural characteristic in England - that is, the rise to popularity and cult fame of certain stories and how both the people and the forms of mass communication available at the time were responsible for it. Note that this was something that Cressy fully condemns. On the other hand, it appears that Cressys enjoyment in this social condition is veiled by his feigned objective presentation of what is considered as travesties when in fact Cressy was, like other people, were entertained at the very least by these stories, strong enough for Cressy to create book about it.

If anything, Cressy was trying to address social problems as revealed in these stories. The book itself was not made to point out these problems. These problems manifest themselves as the stories are being told, that is why the book was entitled travesties and not problems per se. Cressy made sure he and his book and what it points to achieves a certain degree of authoritative bearing as it is quick to include analysis as well as details of what is popular culture at the time involving and affecting the stories. In the end, the author appears to be - directly or indirectly - asking outwardly and openly without any particular target of the query why such things happen and what exactly is the purpose of these events, phenomenon, happenings and conditions in the social life to the lives of the people. Is it meant to serve a greater, subtle socio cultural agenda or was merely a product and manifestation of the complexity of human nature.

Cressy was adamant in emphasizing the  travesties in the form of vulgar and shocking practices and sub cultures, like the burlesque and the witchcraft, the sex orgies and the religions operating underground, etc. Cressy did not exactly point out what is right and wrong with affirmative definitive actions in the book, at the very least. He tried to let the readers or audience be equipped enough to be aware of these things. He left it for them to decide if there are indeed good or bad points regarding this social characteristic to begin with, or it this seemingly abnormal and counter culture conditions occupying a significant part of the social consciousness and psyche are nothing but normal parts of the social life in general.

The first chapter explores the concept of personal fulfillment. It is a discussion of how a person should live beyond the material since nothing material can equal the afterlife. The book explains that all people must be satisfied in whatever they have in this life while considering the salvation of their souls, no matter what their status in life, may it be the well-off or the poor. Thomas emphasizes the importance of mans adherence to conventions, to conform to what is morally accepted, whether in religion or in personal behavior. Nonconformity means the personal singularity and individuality with the pursuit of being different. This individual mind set of being independent of others and the conventional norms cause a naughty spirit in which evil begins.

The next chapter Thomas emphasizes that all societies which depend upon force for survival are the strongest and courageous. Societies dependence on force enables them to have enough supply of sources for subsistence. For instance, honor for the nobles mean the proof of their lives and status, and for a military man, valor is important as it is more glorious to die in battle. But civilian power is yet more powerful because of the strength of character and conquering ones desire is greater than conquering others.

In the third chapter, Thomas emphasizes the importance of work and its rewards. A person needs to work to support his or her economic needs to support his or her physical desires. Although at times hard, a persons job treated with interest and dedication can be a career or a vocation, only with some disturbances as leisure. He noted Thomas Jeffersons idea of idleness as miserable and Marxs notion that labor or work enables a person to reflection and realization of his or her self. Thomas delves on the concepts of reputation, integrity and shame in the next chapter. He also discusses sexual morality and explains that what courage meant to men is austerity to women, this gives them honor. But this purity is vanished with the societies openness to individuality and personal life. In the 18th century, the family and the significant others had emerged to give us the most satisfactions.

Thomas discusses the real essence of human restlessness, the fear of the unconscious in the last chapter. He explained that a persons concept of the afterlife motivates him to live a worthy life on earth so people will remember, even after one persons death. Fame is important to others as they hope to maintain it even in the afterlife, as he emphasizes that every man dreams that their names be remembered forever. He concludes that humans have endless desires because of their search for fulfillment. Most people simply look for temporary happiness from their jobs and family and friends and by appreciating them gives them satisfaction but make them realize the end of life. Thomas book generally argued that there are six factors which give motivation to live a life on purpose. These factors to include military prowess, work and vocation, wealth and possessions, honor and reputation, friendship and sociability, and fame and the afterlife were discussed using personal true experiences from great men in history starting from the Reformation to the days of the Enlightenment by exploring the ways in which people sought to lead fulfilling lives, emphasizing the central values of the key periods in his text., and elaborating on the constant problems of human existence.

Thomas has given the modern readers a clear evidence of the recurrent problems of human beings because of dissatisfaction and the concept of individuality. He gas provided reliable sources to his arguments, known people in their field. Although it is true that religion has a great impact on humans view of life and the afterlife, mans instinct or desires overpower what is moral, especially this day of modernization. Humans always dream of leaving a reputable legacy after they die so they work, no matter how hard and refuse to be idle.  His explanation of heroic deeds, a professional career or a rewarding work, and being wealthy or rich is interesting but they are not the ultimate source of eternal happiness or the true way to fulfillment. Those material things will only give temporary happiness, fame and honor since those do not exist in the afterlife. Yet, the ultimate satisfaction and happiness can be gained even in the life here on earth by knowing true spirituality. It is the spirit that must guide the flesh, even the desires of man. Without the spirit the flesh dies so material satisfaction follows spiritual satisfaction. A man must seek spiritual fulfillment first to be contented materially and eventually be happy, in life and even in the end of life on earth. The most reliable source, historically and morally is the Bible. It says For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul No man can be satisfied with material wealth and fame. So God recommends to seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness and all these things shall be added unto you because God is the Provider of everything.

Introduction
Femininity is often referred to as the unique qualities that can be attributed to the female gender. It can be said to be a model, or even a cast to which all women are based upon. Such characteristics range from beauty, grace, poise, gentleness, weakness, birth and motherhood to a range of other possible definitions (Stuard 1981). One unfortunate aspect of a model or a cast is that while it is a basis to which a particular object, perception or idea is based upon it can be considered constraining as well. That instead of allowing for variation it seeks to create the exact image over and over again without fail. A characteristic which allows no apparent flaws but allows no improvements as well. Such is the case of women in the eyes of men during the early modern period of human history, the Renaissance.

While it is true that the Renaissance era can be considered the rebirth of learning and intellectual thought it was also a time characterized by the strengthening of the economies of numerous European states and along with it the resurgence of the Catholic Church as an influential force in peoples lives and perception. As a result of the growing economy and wealth of the populace women werent needed as much as a force of labor in society as such they were relegated to an inactive and enclosed role where they were suppose to stay at home and tend to the needs of their husband and family (Wolfram 2006).

This cultural trend towards the isolation women within households is evident by numerous paintings notably from Italy during the 16th century which show portray women as being inside an enclosed structure peering out from small windows or with men peering in to look at women (Encyclopedia of Women 2008). Combining this with the social influences of the church at the time resulted in an overall social perception of women as having to be beautiful, delicate, more of a listener than a talker, reserved, polite, and graceful. At the same time biases against women also appeared due to these perceptions such as weakness, being incapable of the same level of work as man as well as being intellectually inferior (De vivo 2004). The end result was an overall perception that men were superior to women due to the traits of femininity that were attached to women that portrayed them as the weaker sex.

While women in the Renaissance era were able to enjoy the benefits of living in a civilized age they had to contend with a cultural perception that prohibited their growth or even acceptance into certain professions, restricted their freedom and in the end prevented them from going beyond the perceptions that society labeled them as. This paper will seek explain the concepts of femininity attached to women during the early modern period and will show the end result of these perceptions on women to see if in they were positive or negative for women at the time.

Perception of Women and the Concept of Femininity

Women living in Europe during the early modern period of history were heavily restricted in what they were allowed and not allowed to do based on societal rules and perceptions at the time. This ranged from possible careers, to who they will marry even to the places that they were allowed to go to. This was due to the fact that during the 16th century and even the subsequent centuries after that society was mainly patriarchal with an emphasis placed on the value of masculinity over that of femininity. This was due to the fact that men as being the providers were considered more important than women due to their ability to provide a means of living for the family. What must be understood is that during the initial stages of the Renaissance economic prosperity spread towards the different European states. This was unlike previous centuries marked by turmoil and economic disparity where both men and women were needed to provide a means of living for the family (Cohn 2002). As a result of this prosperity women were no longer needed as a secondary source of income thus a cultural perception developed where they were suppose to remain at home and tend to the needs of their family.

It was due to this that the importance of women in society beyond that of a mother and child bearer started to diminish. What rose in its place was a standard of femininity that all women were based upon and made to conform to due to societal pressures. These standards were characterized by a subservience to their husbands, the ability to bear children and take care of the household all at the same time (Cohn 2002). In other words the concept of femininity during the early modern period was one of motherhood, childcare, subservience and the ability to take care of a household. Such characteristics remained unchanged due to several factors namely the church, cultural perception and the Renaissance as one of the heights of patriarchy.

The Church
The influence of the catholic church on the society and the way of thinking of people at the time is not to be underestimated. Its influences can be seen in the works of art influenced by Catholic religious motifs dating back to the 16th century and even well before then. It has been a driving force of political action, wars and societal changes as evidenced by numerous instances in history. As such it makes sense that with the influential capacity of the church it would also have the power to influence societies view about women. During the early modern period of European history the church espoused that women were the origin of sin while at the same time venerated Mary the Mother of Christ as being exempt from this status due to the miracle of her own birth and the birth of Jesus Christ.

Thus the result was that the church continuously espoused a message wherein women should be more like the Virgin Mary in word and in deed. In bible history Mary has been shown to be a woman of great faith in the Lord while at the same time showing herself to be a good mother as well as a good wife to Joseph. She is portrayed as being very demure, possessing great strength of character and an apparent subservience to her husband as characterized by her unquestioning faith during their journey away from Bethlehem at the behest of Joseph in order to escape the purge of King Herod.

These messages imparted by the Church created the basis by which the feminine characteristics of women at the time were to be determined. Namely that of faith in their husband, subservience and being a good mother (Moore 2010). The end result was the embedding of a cultural perception of a womans worth as being her ability to care for her home, husband and children.

Cultural Perception of Women
As a result of the social conventions associated to women by the church the end result was that women were perceived as being the weaker sex useful only as means of bearing children and taking care of the household. This was due to the fact that since women were perceived as weak and were kept within homes without a means of improving themselves they in the end became what they were perceived as. It was due to this perceived weakness that women were not allowed to enter certain professions, receive a proper education, or find a means of being independent. This further cemented their predilection towards thinking that their usefulness lay in ensuring a tidy household and childcare.

In numerous painting from the 16th century, primarily from Italy, a vast majority of them portray women as wearing extravagant forms of dresses and gowns which were in style at the time but at the same time it is shown that these women were inside houses with small windows with the women always facing in some direction as if staring at something. This style of portraying women was due to the commonly known fact at the time of having women stay indoors with the only means for them to see the outside world is through the windows in their homes. The windows are depicted as being small since looking through windows is only a fraction of what is truly outside the walls of their confinement.

Not all women during this time period accepted the ways that society dictated for them however these women were often shunned by a majority of society and as a result further enforced the need to conform to those who didnt have the willingness or the strength to rebel against methods which sough to control and imprison a person without bars or guards. Thus it can be said that the aspects of femininity attached to women during the time period that they were in became a means of confinement and restriction. Creating a means by which they are controlled by a dominant patriarchy that allowed no one to assail their reign.

The Renaissance and Patriarchy

Due to the teachings of the church, economic prosperity and cultural perception men during the 16th century became the supposed stronger sex. As accorded by their ability to enter into numerous professions and bring substantial funds back to the family. It was actually due to gender biases by the male half of the population that prevented women from entering certain professions that stopped them from being able to rise from a greater status than that relegated to them by a patriarchal society (Cohn 2002). It was due to all these factors combined that resulted in male dominance over women due to characteristics associated with femininity that all women were expected to follow due to societal compulsion.

Repercussions of the concept of femininity in the early modern period

Lack of Education
It was due to the concepts of femininity attached to women during the 16th century of childbirth, homecare and subservience that the need for a proper education was never attributed to their gender. The commonplace belief was that since women had no other purpose besides that of taking care of the household and childbirth as well as childcare they didnt need to have an education from institutions of higher learning (De vivo 2004). While there were exception to this rule with a few notable women able to attain a distinctive educational background the majority were not able to avail of this privilege. At the time there was an ongoing belief that men were not only physically superior to women but mentally as well. Obviously such a belief was due to the fact that as a result of cultural perceptions that denied women a proper education in institutions of higher learning they of course inevitably wound up the way they were and the perception lived on.

Women who were able to transcend such notions were though of as heretical, unbecoming of the state of womanhood and as a result were at times shunned or even made social outcasts. It must be noted though that theoretically if the cultural perceptions brought about by perceived notions of what a woman should be did not exist women would have been able to attain a similar status as men in many fields as evidenced by modern day women today who are able to compete if not excel in fields that were traditionally reserved only for men.

Lack of Freedom
Due to the perception of the need of subservience attributed to women their lives were in the hands of their fathers or husbands. Marriages were arranged despite the lack of any form of love or interest in the opposite party. Women were treated as assets wherein dowries given to them by their family at the start of the marriage are all in the hands of their husband. As such they had little financial freedom, could not easily leave their husbands and the concept of divorce or annulment were next to nonexistent (Furguson 1994).

As a result most marriages that started in abuse ended in abuse as well with few options for the women abused to escape the marriage. When mentioning a lack of freedom this doesnt just mean their inability to escape from a life of married subservience but also an inability to rise in a profession. While it is true that women were not allowed to work in certain professional careers they were allowed in some such as weaving. In cases such as these though women did not have the freedom to rise up from their current positions rather they were always overlooked the company adhering to a  bias of  choosing males over females for promotion.

In fact women at the time could work for years in a single factory with no possibility of promotion as compared to a man who worked there for a year and would readily be inline for one. The last lack of freedom is an inescapability from the role that society has determined for them in form of childbirth and being a mother (Ferguson 1994). Today women have a choice as to whether or not they would have children. They can choose either to focus on their careers or have children or even both if possible. In the 16th century women who got pregnant were no longer allowed to work and as such could expect a life of being stuck at home caring for the children of her husband for the rest of her life (Wolfram 2006).

No Voice in Political Proceedings and a Lack of Certain Civil Rights

Women at the time lack any hearsay in the political proceedings happening within their countries due to the perceived mental deficiencies that women supposedly had compared to men. When it comes to the politics the supposed femininity of women associated with homecare and motherhood is apparently incompatible with the needs of politics. As such during the 16th century onwards up till the 1900s with some notable exception such as Elizabeth 1 women were unable to have a voice in how the country was to be run (Cohn 2002). Not only that but they also lacked certain civil rights namely the right not to be treated as mere property by their male counterpart. It was only during the past 100 years or so starting in the middle of the 1900s during the advent of the womens rights movement that women started to have an equal position as men in both politics and society.

Women in Society Today
It was due to the advent of the womens rights movement during the middle of the 1900s that the concept of equality for men and women started to develop. Today women are able to enjoy the same rights and privileges as men. Gone are the days wherein women had to subvert themselves before their male counterparts. Women now can enjoy the ability to have equal career opportunities with men and as such have the ability to be promoted to higher positions. With social change also came the ability of women to divorce and annul as they please.

They no longer have to stay in abusive marriages due to societal restrictions and precedent rather today they are free to choose who they marry and when they will marry. As such the previous attributes of femininity attributed to women such as motherhood, childcare and subservience have been replaced with career independence and choice. A choice as to whether or not they want to have children, a choice of when to get married and a choice of who to marry.

Today the roles of femininity and masculinity have become blurred due to changes within society today. With women entering into more and more careers which were previously a haven for males. With these new freedoms comes a new way of life for women with the freedom of choice being the most important aspect of their lives. Compared to their counterparts in the early modern period of the human history it can be said that women today are far luckier with a much better life in front of them and the freedom to choose it.

Conclusion
From all that was stated it can be said that women in the 16th century were imprisoned by the concepts of femininity that were attributed to them. The roles of motherhood, childcare and home care were so indelibly etched into the societal perception of women that they were incapable of being anything else. As such it can be said that even though women in Europe during the early modern period of history were able to enjoy a better standard of living they were still in the end imprisoned by societal constraints that made their life no better than before.