West European Studies

In the history of the Achaeans, the Shield of Achilles played an important role in the Iliad. The Shield of Achilles tells about a story of the Achaeans who fought against the Trojans. However, the fight against the Trojans is a microcosm of the whole story of the Achaeans. The story, as forged by Hephaestus, the crippled smith god, depicts the happenings within the two cities and also the kingly estate of Agamemnon. In order to understand what the Shield of Achilles depicts, it is important to look at the shield, the cities that are depicted within the shield and the Estate of the King (Wilson, 2002). In addition, other scenes that are depicted need to be examined in order to gain insight into the finer details and the intricacies of the Shield of Achilles. The examination of these elements will open an understanding into the significance of Shield of Achilles and also the Iliad.

Achilles shield was forged by Hephaestus, the smith god of fire. The god commences with twenty hot bellows to fire tin, gold, silver and bronze in his kiln. This procedure is followed by hammering the metals upon the anvil in order to create a colossal shield for the Achilles to brandish. The god of fire makes the shield to comprise of five layers of metal with shield strap made of a triple ply edging on the rim. He depicts on the shield the scenes of the heavens, sea and earth, two noble cities, fallow fields, a kings estate, a thriving vineyard, a dancing circle and a longhorn herd of cattle (Muellner, 1996). Upon completion of the shield, Hephaestus makes a breastplate and a strong helmet for Achilles. This armor which he makes becomes extremely hard to be destroyed and is considered to have the values of a god. The process of making the shield and the attributes of the shield depict the importance of the Shield of Achilles.

The two cities on the shield represent the city of Troy and that of Greece. On the shield, one of the cities is full of men singing and dancing as the brides march through the streets while the other city is dominantly surrounded by an army with divided plans which finally split their ranks. They are split between sharing the riches that they have captured and plundering the city to capture even more riches. In each city, there is turmoil predominant and in one city there is an outbreak of a quarrel which is brought to judgment. The other city is surrounded by armies who fight and kill men along the river banks, dragging them off dead. The two cities are heavily stained with death and also both house love (Atchity, 1978). In the first city, there are two men who quarrel over a murdered kinsman blood price with consequent taking of the case to a judge who will eventually decide the conclusion.

The scenes on the Shield of Achilles depict the Trojans who are leaving to fight with the Achaeans between the shores and their city. In the Achaeans and the Trojans, a dead man is hauled through the slaughter by his heels, which shows how Homer tries to foreshadow the kind of victory by the Achilles over Hector.  The scenes also try to draw a picture of how Achilles humiliates Hector. The shield of Achilles also depicts the kings estate. There are bountiful harvests of ripe grain which are reaped and bound as the king stands in calmness elating among the never-ending barley bundles. At the kings estate, an ox is being prepared for the feast of the harvests as the women try to fix the middle of the day meal.

The Shield of Achilles also depicts happiness and the kings prosperity. The king represented in the shield is Agamemnon, the Achaeans king. The shield foreshadows the victory of the Achaeans in the battle with the Troy. Also, in the shield, it can be understood that the vineyard is a thriving one and has a winding footpath upon which the pickers run. The pickers of the vineyard comprise of a young boy, among others, busy singing a lovely dirge while playing his lyre. There is a scene of a herd of longhorn cattle in the shield. On the shield, the bulls are engraved in tin and gold along with the swaying reeds of the pasture and the rippling stream. From distance, a pair of lions can be seen seizing a bull from the front side, proceeding to devour it. A group of herdsmen and a pack of dogs run to help the seized bull but all turns in vain. There are also scenes when the smith god of fire tries to shoe on the shield. He forges a dancing circle for the young boys and girls to dance and court and a meadow for the flock to graze (Lombardo, 1997). The scenes also bring about the joyous and festive mood.

In a broader sense, the Shield of Achilles is a very detailed and intricate piece of craftsmanship which can only be suitable for a god. This can be seen from the details of the cities and the estate of the king as they are marvelously represented on the shield of Achilles. These details do not only hold the marvels of the beauty in the intricacies but also serve to represent the larger part of the story of the Iliad and the war involving the Trojans and the Achaeans. The Shield of Achaeans serves to dedicatedly remind readers of the past events in the battle scenes and also sets the scene for the coming events. The Shield of Achaeans serves as a pause which the reader gets a chance to reflect back and get the full meaning of the events which occurred before (Cairns, 2001). After the reader reflects back on the past events, the Shield of Achaeans grants the reader with another opportunity to foreshadow on the fall of Troy.

A description of the construction of the Shield of Achaeans is provided in details by Homer in Book XVIII of the Iliad. The shield is creatively constructed by the god of technology, Hephaestus and the shield serves as a symbol of Achilles. Achilles is the central hero during the times of Homer and this is the reason why he creatively brings out a picture of the creative technology of the smith god, Hephaestus in the making of the shield of Achilles. The shield comprises of a totality which is broader than the Homeric epic can illustrate. This weaponry, in a poetic way, describes and sums up the human knowledge in the era of Homer. In addition, the shield serves as a universal model of the world in both human and natural sense.

The shield of Achilles serves as a model of the exact structure of the physical world. In this model, in the pre-Socratic times, the perception of nature was deeply affected. Examples of the philosophers who followed this school of thought included Anaximander, Empedocles, Anaxagoras and later, Plato and Aristotle. The shield serves as a model of the structure of a society of the cities in Greece which deeply influenced the earlier philosophers. In addition, the shield comprises of an introduction to the philosophical methods of dichotomy as coined by Plato, including the Aristotelian digital analysis of the world into groups (Muellner, 1996). In this manner, Homer opens the way to enabling developments in the area of science and technology.

The Shield of Achilles can therefore be considered as an important craft made in history and its significance is fully recognized in the Greek Roman Mythology. A lot of details and explanations have been sought regarding the Shield of Achilles. Historians and great thinkers have come to unearth the facts behind the shield. These struggles to understand the Shield of Achilles illuminate finer details on the life during the Homer period, the social, cultural and the technological development. It does not leave the reader of the story of the Shield of Achilles without a lesson all the details on the shield have great significance when interpreted by a keen reader. Philosophers in the pre-Socratic times got immensely attracted to the logic represented on the shield (Wilson, 2002). Moreover, an increasing attention has been gained by modern philosophers to shed more light on the issues represented on the Shield of Achilles.

The political fortune of France in the 1840s laid amid great struggle to political stability. This was the period when revolutionary movements were taking over the monarchial rule in Europe. Many eye witnesses exhibits the testimony to this struggle. Some involved bloodshed while others did not.

At this time, France was under King Louis Philippes rule where M. Guizot who was an anti liberal was the Prime Minister. The revolutionists, mainly the young from the elite class, were advocating for the electoral reforms to cut short the prolonged authority and the dismissal of    M. Guizot. They also demonstrated against the kings solicit and the diplomatic treasons in the judiciary. There was immense corruption and degradation to the foreigners views. They heavily advocated for the human rights and loyalty. They were the Republicans.  The other group named the society of the rights of man was expeditiously fighting for humanity and its progress.

The movements did not bear any fruits, but the struggle continued. As the movement turned to be general, those in the military also ruled against the government. They also demanded for the dismissal of the Guizot.  This was a time when many of the people were armed. The military request forced the king to bow down to the request and Guizot together with the deputies were dismissed from his government. But this only resulted to the dissatisfaction of the many with little, if any reforms taking place. It deceived the Republicans who were fighting for the reforms.

The accounts from the eye witnesses though supplying first hand information may lead to conflicting conclusion. This is clear from the lack of harmony in their report.

Imperialism and Imperial Nationalism
The 19th century was an era when the European countries were heavily fighting for the imperial expansion and nationalism in Africa and Asia. This never went on very smoothly. To justify the opinion, the imperial expansion activists had to gather enough reasons for this and these included There was effort to protect their own settlers from being invaded by other powerful countries. The British fought for the possession of the New Hebrides to offer them protection and avoid the ruling from France most of the resources that had been used in civilization and Christianization came from their land.  The British also feared attack through the waters.

There was also the motive to increase their trading markets. This would help in economic stability. Countries like New Hebrides had fertile soil and ample fruits. This help to be the source of fruit for their market. The powers were also searching for the expanded export markets. The France were advocating to areas where they can export their industrial goods due to the trade barriers with the Germans and USA perfectionists trading. In addition, the Germans were also in need of the waters for sporting, industry and agriculture.
There was also need for civilization. The British had done a lot in civilization in New Hebrides. Just as the Russians had tried to civilize and introduce the slave trade in central Africa, the French needed to even take it to a higher level. This would help to increase their colonial territory expansion. They required using the Africans waters for their military benefits.

There was also the fight for political and patriotic stability. By increasing their territory, and moving from the European territory, the French were fighting to maintain their superiority. This was also the case with the Germans with their bid to get Sudan and Cameroon.

Lastly, the colonists claimed to save the weak states from threat of terror, diseases and the natural disasters.

History always reminds us of figures and events that either positively impacted their societies or they were a let down to their people. Looking into Western Europe, one would have exhausted its history without looking into prominent figures like Roman Emperor Augustus. His reign was marked with exemplary leadership that led to stability in the region for many years not to mention his military ability.

This paper looks into the life of the man who changed the Roman republic to the Roman Empire hence becoming the first Roman emperor. Highlighted in this paper are some of his political and military abilities. The social, economic and religious context in which Augustus operated in his time is also discussed. Finally, the paper looks into how Emperor Augustus impacted the social, economic and political trends of the Roman Empire.

A brief biography
Emperor Augustus was born Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 BC in Rome (Southern, p 1). He was born to Gaius Octavius his father and Atia his mother. His family was renowned by its wealth and prosperity with the members of the family running banking businesses at Valitrae. The parents had moved from Valitrae to Rome by the time Augustus was born. Octavius, father to Octavius, entered into Roman politics at around 70BC in his appointed position of a quaestor. The political career of his father may have led to the later political dominance of his son although little known to him. It is to be remembered that Atia, Augustus mother, was the daughter of Atius Balbus from Aricia, and his wife Julia, the sister of Julius Ceasor (Southern, p 2). Augustus (by this time still known as Gaius Octavius) was brought up knowing Julius Caesar more than he probably knew his father since he was absent governing Macedonia.

Following the death of his father, Augustus was taken by Caesar and it is claimed that he started preparing him to be his successor. Octavius was for instance elected in 48BC to join the pontifical college in addition to being involved in Caesars military celebrations of the 46BC where he even earned military honors (Fagan, para 6). Octavius also on several occasions accompanied Caesar to wars such as the 45BC war in Spain against Pompenians and Mundas. Such brevity at a tender age made him gain much admiration from Caesar. Fortunately or unfortunately, Caesar was brutally killed in March 44BC.

Political and military ability
After learning of Caesars death, Octavius secretly went back to Rome only to find out that Caesar had named him as his successor. Although his family tried to discouraged him from accepting the succession seeing that Casear had earned so much enmity, Octavius braved himself and went to join a large troop that was in Brundisium. Octavius was now getting into politics and he changed his name to C. Julius Caesar Octavianus as per the Roman custom (Fagan, para 8). Organizing the troops at Brundisium, Octavius, now known as Octavian, moved into Rome and through his organized military, he successfully overcame Mark Antony who was a great rival to Caesar in 43 BC. Gaining popularity among the people and the Senate for his ability to restore peace and bringing dictatorship to an end, Octavian was given the name Augustus. Octavian was involved in several successful battles through his military expedience such as the war against Brutus and Cassisus as well as the war against Sextus Pompeius. From these wars, he gained a lot of favor and fame from his uncles enemies thus presenting himself as a reconciler.

It is important to note that Octavian introduced a new political system known as the principate rule with an emperor as the head of the monarchy and being bestowed with power for life.

Social, economic and religious condition
By the time Augustus came to be established as an emperor in the Roman state, the republic was disintegrated especially in the high ranks of power. There were many divisions generally coming from the hatred that Caesar had earned himself through his dictatorial leadership. The state was not stable due to the many wars that it was involved in and therefore its infrastructure and economy was in a dilapidated state. Thanks to the coming of Augusts who focused on social reforms by instituting reconstruction endeavors. Augustus went in record for his ability to transform Rome by installing new and impressive buildings among other infrastructure. In the largest part of his reign, Augustus was able to make the Roman currency stable and sound moving it from its failing state during the civil wars prior to his reign. It is during his reign that an efficient postal system was established in addition to connecting Roman Empire through a highway system. With him, literature was established with many poets and writers being under his patronage (Lucidcafe Library, para 5).

It was only unfortunate that the economy startled shaking in addition to military misfortunes during his last days of reign. This may have forced him to become a bit dictatorial. Augustus can be said to have met his death in August 19, 14 AD having achieved greatly for his empire and the whole of Western Europe.

Conclusion
Augustus was certainly and exemplary leader who enabled the Roman Empire to stand for many years social, economically, politically and military wise. Even with a few shortcomings in his leadership, his reign was more of a success story to be told now and in ages to come.

The conflict between the Soviet Union and Japan was not very much known to the outside world as most of the attention was focused on what was going on in Europe. Hitlers forces were on the move again, resulting in the annexation of Austria, and as they poised to occupy Czechoslovakia, the likelihood of another world war was very strong.

Following the conquest and occupation of most of China, Japan attempted to test the mettle of the Russians to the north of Manchuria and Mongolia in 1938. The occupation of Manchuria by the Japanese in 1931 did not go unnoticed by the Soviets. They were acutely aware of Japans imperialistic ambitions and knew it would only be a matter of time before they cross the border for the Soviet Far East (Siberia). Since Siberia is rich in natural resources, it would prove very tempting for the Japanese to pass it up especially since they need these resources to help sustain their starving economy as well as provide more living space for their growing population. In preparation for this eventuality, the garrisons in the Far East were reinforced and fortifications along the borders of Manchuria provided material aid to the Nationalist Chinese forces of Chiang Kai-shek. They also entered into a treaty with Mongolia which had become a communist state that also lay in the path of Japanese aggression and conquest.

Nevertheless, the Japanese assumed that the Soviet Union would be too preoccupied with the brewing tensions in Europe as Nazi Germany was also venturing into territorial expansion following the annexation of Austria and was poised to occupy Czechoslovakia. Taking advantage of the dilemma the Soviets were facing, the Japanese had been constantly testing the defenses of the borders through countless skirmishes. However, it was not until the middle of 1938 when the conflict became full blown as Soviet and Japanese forces clashed near Lake Khasan which was close to the Korean border that was also occupied by Japan. After moving inland for several miles, the Soviets counterattacked through a combination of armored attack on the ground and tactical air support that enabled them to push back the Japanese to Korea and enter into a truce.

The following year, the Japanese made another attempt as the Manchuria-based Kwangtung Army, acting on their own initiative, made an incursion into an area known as Khalkhin Gol which sat on the borders of Mongolia, Manchuria, and Korea.  Once again, the Soviets met the attack and they were under the command of then Lieutenant General Georgi Zhukov. His ground forces were reinforced by an air force made up of veterans from the Spanish Civil War. The Soviets soundly defeated the Japanese in this battle, and in 1941, the Soviets and Japanese signed the Neutrality Pact which was akin to the non-aggression treaty entered by the Soviets and Germany, Japans coalition partner.

In the final analysis, the Russians the Japanese fought were no longer the same as the ones they fought in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905. The Soviets the Japanese faced in these border wars were better equipped and ably led by competent commanders such as Zhukov, who would later be at the forefront of the European front in the war with Germany.  The Japanese defeat also ended any ambitions the Japanese had in invading the resource rich regions of Siberia and instead concentrated their forces south of the Soviet border and invaded the regions there.

United States Army Rangers refer to the elite American military members who are capable of undertaking short-term strikes and small-scale offensive operations in sensitive and hostile political environments.  They started their service in the 17th century during wars between the Native American Indian and colonist tribes.  
They were employed by the colonial governments as full-time soldiers to make patrols in their fortifications and to give early warnings incase of raids.  They also acted as guides and scouts in offensive operations to locate villages as well as other targets for the task forces gotten from the colonial troops and the militia.  

The Knowltons Rangers are the historical parents of the current Army Rangers for the United States, who were elites selected to carry out reconnaissance missions (Ambrose, 1992).

During the World War two, the British Commandos in Scotland sanctioned, recruited and started training the first Ranger Battalion for war.  They were the first American soldiers to participate in the war since it was formed shortly after the entrance of the United States in the World War two(Kersten, 2008).  Although the United States joined the battle, they were not sure about the outcomes of their involvement.  However, throughout the war, the American troops played major roles in the battle field. Firstly, they led the troops in the breakthrough of the Omaha Beach where many people had been killed.  This was achieved by their effort to put out the actions of the destroyers on the beach through either suppressing or eliminating their machine-gun fires, pillboxes and bluff.  Secondly, they were able to crack the stalemate that was on the winter line of Italy.  This was achieved through capitulation of Italy by patience and negations. Thirdly, they helped in fighting to save the Salerno and Sicily beach heads, which was enhanced by overthrowing of the Mussolini government and knocking Italy out of war through an allied conference.  Fourthly, they spearheaded the Holland invasion where they met a lot of resistance but due to persistence and working objectively they were able to overcome the resistance and through allies they captured Arnhem.  Fifthly, they were in a position to turn the tide in the battle for the Buldge where they were able to stand against Hitlers plan of regaining the west initiative.  By the end of the battle the American troops had taken back all the ground lost and they had also defeated Germany (Ambrose 1992).   Finally, they were able to make the final plunge into Germany. This was due to the effects of the world war one that had dislocated the democratic institutions in the country.  The depression was felt worldwide enhancing the collapse of German (Kershaw, 2004).

These important victories were enhanced by the fact that the American troops consisted of very experienced men who made it possible to make strategies to achieve all that they focused on.  The men in the troops had also love for each other which created bonds and friendships that kept them strong throughout the war.  They were willing to lay down their own lives for the teammates next to them. They advised each other on survival strategies, and regardless of the horrific and distressing experiences in war, they still encouraged each other without complaining (ODonnell, 2001).

Napoleon Bonaparte was an emperor of France and he commanded the French army. Adolf Hitler led the Nazi group. Both Adolf Hitler and Napoleon Bonaparte attempted to conquer Russia but they both failed in 1812 and 1941 in their conquest. Despite his failures Napoleon had some achievements. French army under Napoleon was reorganized artillery role was reorganized and independent units were formed, instead of attaching artillery pieces in support of troops. Cannonballs were standardized by Napoleon for easier supply of the armys artillery. After a period of serious war, in 1812 Russians evacuated. Napoleons men were well prepared for the war. Napoleon drew success by alliance or conquest until he was invades in Russia in 1812, which led to his exile to Elba Island. Napoleon defeated the Battle of Waterlog he used the best military tactics from various sources.

Napoleon also developed military innovations .He modernized and reformed the French army this led to victory. Napoleon had military strategy that matched his ever broadening ambitions. Napoleon could take risks boldly this was reflected in the French army. The French army improved during French revolution in terms of the tactics, equipment, and morale. Germans invaded Russia or Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II. Adolf Hitler led the Operation Barbarosa group which was the largest military in the history.At the end of 1942, Hitler had not achieved the victory he expected. This led to Hitler making further operations in Russia like the Siege of Leningrad, Battle of Stalingrad all of which failed. Russia was attacked first by Hitler because Russia had more resources and land than Britain.
 
Preparations of the Russia invasion began in 1940. Operation Barbarosa was launched when Finnish, German, Romanian and Hungarian soldiers attacked Russia in 1941.Onset of winter and losses brought German attack to Russia to a halt. Hitler could have learnt from the failure of Napoleon in 1812. Hitler could have concentrated on a single goal. Just like Napoleon Hitler extended his army by ordering invasions that were spread from Leningrad to Stalingrad. Hitler wanted to gain all at the same time. Hitler wanted to gain all the three regions because, Leningrad was the birth place of the communism in Russia, Moscow because it was the capital of the Soviet Union and Ukraine and caucus beyond because it covered sixty percent of the Russia Industry and it had abundant food stuff

Napoleon was overconfident. He had the ability to move rapidly thus surprising his enemies. Hitler though that he would overwhelm the Russians. Hitler underestimated the resistance he would face from the Russians while setting his operation. Overconfidence is also demonstrated by the German soldiers who were ordered to carry limited supplies. Hitler could have learnt from napoleon and improve the quality of roads as poor roads forced the operation Barbarossa to be very sluggish. Poor transportation forced the French army to march at a very slow pace to Russia. Just like Napoleon had miscalculated the value of quality road network this in return led to consequences that were very brutal. Due to employment of the three-pronged attack, the German supplies ran out, Hitler could have supplied his troops with proper food and water to avoid straining of the supply line as was the case with the Napoleon.
 
Hitler failed to predict the effect of the supplies if divided into three.The supply lines became difficult to maintain and the morale of the German soldiers dropped due to lack of food, drinks and ammunition. Scorched earth policy deprived the Germans supplies yet the Germans had carried limited supplies. Hitler could have learned from the Napoleon and order operation Barbarossa to carry enough supplies.

Germans invaded Russia or Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II. Adolf Hitler led the Nazi Germany group which was the largest military in the history. At the end of 1942, Hitler had not achieved the victory he expected.  This led to Hitler making further operations in Russia like the Siege of Leningrad, Battle of Stalingrad all of which failed. Russia was attacked first by Hitler because Russia had more resources and land than Britain. Germans inability to conquer Soviet Union opened up all the possibilities of the Russians to regain their lost land and eventually revenge.

In conclusion, operation of the Russia failed because the harsh weather, peoples tenacity and the terrain conditions. Combination of tactics used by defending Russians and natural obstacles led to failure of Napoleon and Hitler.

The social structure of the Jewish people in Europe was made up of small organized group that were well acculturated and proto- emancipated. These groups stayed both in Britain and German where they started to gain economic prowess and success. They even started to get richer by the day. They acquired high level education and even good positions and good white collar jobs.  The wealthy Jews and their families were able to gain some favors that included exemption from the anti-Jews laws until later when they were given equal citizenship with other people. A problem arose with a small group of gentiles came up with several issues that were so characteristic as their religious allegiance. They wanted to be included in the operations of common law. The British did not see them as their equals in other aspects of life.

After the World War II the Jews in Britain were the largest group of survivors of the war. A new group of refugees also fleeing from the Nazis also arrived in Britain due to the persecution that were inflicted on them, making the number of the Jews increase enormously. They formed their own community leadership where their leader was a chief rabbi.  The number increased so much and they started to advance in all spheres of life ranging from education, social life, economic and even political. They had their own representation in the British parliament most of which were from the Labour party. The number of the Jews who entered the white collar jobs was as twice as much as their European counterparts. It was at this time that Israel looked like a formidable political field. They advanced in technology and had sophisticated weapons. The Palestinians although at first were enemies with the Israelites supported them to rebel against the British rule. This threatened the British and even the Americans who closed doors of their immigration to the Middle East.

The mistreatment and persecutions of the Jews became more pronounced and at the peak of this mistreatment the Jews begun to move to the Middle East, a move that was discouraged strongly by the British government.. They refused to allow Jewish children to move to the American and British empires because they feared domestic violence. Anti- Semitism in the country was so strong. Racialism was at its peak and this was the reason of the governments passiveness. The government had lost faith in the British people and became inactive.

Britain colonized Jerusalem and three years later they obtained a mandate to extend their territory to Palestine and the east of river Jordan. In the spring of the same year, there was violence that was started by the Arabs who were opposed to the British rule. The violence led to the formation of a Haganah self- defense organization whose formation was to spearhead the opposition against the foreign rule and show them that the Jews were ungovernable. The riot intensified in the area and the rumor that the Jews were to build a synagogue in the Wailing Wall and increase further encroachment to the Muslim territory fuelled the riots even further. The British then responded by writing a white paper that attempted to stop immigration to the Palestine land.

In the 1930s the immigration of the Jews into Britain strengthened the economy of Britain since they were people of the middle class who were great business men and women especially the fashion trade. Others were involved in pharmaceutical production and light engineering while few of them were professionals, intellectuals and artisans. This was one of the reasons that the British government would not allow them to move to Palestine even during the persecution.