West European Studies

    Christianity has got historic relationship with witchcraft. Many ancient cultures attributed witches and supernatural powers to bring harm to animals, crops, and possessions. Primitive cultures even had laws that give suitable punishment to different witchcraft-related offenses. Hebrews always denounced witchcraft. This is evident in the Mosaic Law. Following the steps of Judaism, the early Christian Churches also condemned witchcraft practices.

    While we look into the history of the cultures (even after the advent of Christianity) we understand that beliefs in witchcraft never disappeared from the minds of human beings. Witchcraft was also not always severely persecuted. For example, Synod of Reisbach (in 799) formally ordered penance as the punishment for females who are convicted of witchcraft practices. He however prohibited any sort of capital punishment for witchcraft cases. For a certain period, the official authority (rhetoric) of the Church even attempted to reduce the beliefs on witchcraft by labeling it as a delusion or false superstition.

    Christianity belief says that God is in heaven, far away from human society. The Church encouraged believers understand this and live a contented life enduring miseries, struggles and problems. Poverty, sickness, troubles and pain were considered as gifts of God. These gifts were considered as helping people to live a holy life, focusing their eyes on heaven and loosening their interest on earthly life. They were asked to shun physical pleasures and comforts. Life was expected to be endured, not enjoyed. Common people werent easily convinced to meekly adopt this philosophy  many hung on tenaciously to a belief in magic (Godbeer, 1992). They thus started believing that witchcraft can help them to deal with the harsh realities and struggles of their lives. The belief in magic, instead of subsiding, started growing. Certain heretical groups and few churchmen believed that witchcraft was much more than the illusions of the Devil. Many got convinced that witchcraft has got great power, triggered by the denizens of hell.

    Witches were reported to carry people along the air and having meetings where they performed lust-filled orgies with evil powers or demons. Mention is given to these activities in the The Bishops Canon, which appeared first in the 10th century and was later incorporated by  Franciscus Gratianus, a lawyer from Bologna, in his collection of canon law in 1150 (Karlsen, 1987). Women even confessed that they flew through the air. Though many like considered it as mere illusions, Chartres  John of Salisbury (English author, diplomat and bishop) considered this as the illusions performed by Devil. Englishman  Walter Map believed that wild orgies were real with Devil behind all the actions. Philip Schaff said that the daughter of a count traveled through air every night.

    In the year 1275, a lady of Toulouse, who was under torture, said that she had participated in sexual intercourse with an evil power (demon) for many years and had even begotten a part serpent, a wolf, a monster. Pope Gregory IX even issued a bull in the year 1231 recommending the use of laws of civil punishment to punish witchcraft. Dominican theologians spread the belief that incubi and succubi were mating with peoplea belief that was rooted in Augustines   City of God, xv23., as well as in the Genesis account of  angels mating with humans (Aronson, 2003).  Gregory IX, in the year 1233 said that Devil was appearing in different forms, in the shapes of a ghost, a black cat, a pallid etc. His papal bull, the Vox Rama, shockingly and graphically detailed what was taking place during witchs satanic, sexual orgies, and with the stroke of his pen launched an official, large-scale persecution of witches (Aronson, 2003). Thomas Aquinas, in the year 1274, admitted that human beings do live with demons. According to him old ladies can induce a devil spirit in young people with a mere glance. According to the leading theologian,   Gerson, witchcraft does have powers and it is impious to doubt the work of the demons. Eugenius IV is of the opinion that there are human beings who have made pacts with evil powers and made sacrifices unto them. All this made witchcraft to be considered as a heretical cult. It was also heretical to trust not in the powers of the Devil. A proper knowledge about witchcraft encouraged clear cut laws and punishment for witchcraft practices. The punishments and laws against witchcraft were thus clear laid out. The methods for trying, detecting and delivering witches were also defined. The powers that work behind witchcraft were thus considered as tricks of Satan, who is all set to attack and destroy Christianity.

    According to Early Modern European tradition, evil forces or demons are stereotypically (though not fully) been women. European pagan belief considered witchcraft as the work of goddess Diana. This has however been considered as a fantasy by Christian authors. The familiar witch of witchcraft stories,  o Superstition superstitions and folklores is a combination of several influences. The characterization of the demons as an evil magic power developed in the latter years. Early Christians (Catholics) looked to Christian clergy and other major churchmen to perform magic more effectively than the traditional methods of witchcraft followed by Roman Paganism. They also defined a special methodology for this, including saints and relics. This is similar to the gods and powers of the pagan beliefs. The Protestant Christian justification for witchcraft (like that specified in the confessions of the Witches Pendle Witches) generally includes a Diabolical pact diabolical pact or some petition to the intervention of the powers of the evil. The witches, evil powers or demons who participated in such practices were alleged to reject Jesus, his teachings and sacrament. Those who reject this sacraments were found to be following witch Sabbath, doing infernal rites and rituals that parodied the major sacraments of the Church. They gave divine honor to   o Satan the evil power (Prince of Darkness) and obtained  Preternatural preternatural powers in return. There existed a folkloric belief that a Devils symbol (resembling a brand on cattle) was made on the body of the witch by the devil to identify the pact with which the witch is involved. Witches were considered as females. They were doubted to collapse societal institutions like marriage.
    Witch hunt was widely practiced in those days. A witch hunt is a search for  Witch witches or evidence of  Witchcraft witchcraft, often involving Moral panic moral panic,  Mass hysteria mass hysteria and  Lynching lynching, but in historical instances also legally sanctioned and involving official witchcraft trials (Roach, 2002). The periods when witchcraft was popular include the Early Modern period Early Modern period (or the period 1480 to 1700). Witch-hunt refers to the terror-induced attempts for tracing the culprits other than the witches. The most popular example of witch hunt is the  McCarthyist McCarthyist search for tracing communists during the Cold War period. Salem witch trials are yet another major incidents to be mentioned there. The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court  Trial (law) trials to prosecute people accused of  Witchcraft witchcraft in County, Massachusetts Suffolk, and  o Middlesex County, Massachusetts Middlesex counties of  o Province of Massachusetts Bay colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693 (Roach, 2002). Many literary works portray the witchcraft practices prevailed in early New England. Entertaining Satan Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England present before the readers a broad view of witchcraft and examine its influence in the world, from primitive days to the modern days. This celebrated work of John Putnam Demos provides a new outlook of American witchcraft. Through examining the existing historical documents of more than a hundred real witchcraft cases, Demos restructured the world of New England in the period of the witchcraft trials. This account of John Putnam Demos is a detailed depiction of the psychological history of the people who are portrayed. In the book we read a cultural history in which the author explains, interprets and analyzes the community (which he mentioned) as a power or force that is able to create or frame its historical destiny. In the book the cultural history is analyzed in the realm of witchcraft practices that prevailed in early New England. The author analyses the culture of the period in the sociological, psychological and cultural phenomenon. Demos say that the witch trials that prevailed in Salem were not the only type of witch trials that existed in America in those days. He further explains the psychodynamic structures of the 17th century society. He also provides a list of psychoanalytic tools, in particular projection, while trying to explain what triggered the fear of witchcraft. By psychology in the background of his understand about the history of witchcraft that prevailed in New England in the 17th century, the author gave a wonderful presentation of the cultural scenario that existed during that time. The author is studying about a society considering their characteristics. He is thus able to explain what resulted in the practice of witchcraft. In part four the author says that the Salem witch trials were not isolated events. Witch trials were very much prevalent during those days. The author studies the witchcraft process along the towns like Hampton. He also examines the records that are related to its inhabitants. In the closing chapters of the book the author emphasizes how a good part of them (the inhabitants who were accused of witchcraft) were Puritan. By studying about Hampton as well as the town of Wethersfield, the author presents a good history about the communities in New England   (Demos, 1983). He further explains what afflictions, agonies and miseries they encountered that witchcraft became a common practice for them. The last part of the book brings several well-argued biographical images and the sociological and psychological sketches of the community that existed during those days. The detailed explanation given by the author also provided the general history of the communities and the real consequences of witchcraft in their lives. Learning the history of these communities will make us understand why they became easily liable to witchcraft. The cultural background of the communities prepared the way for the birth and growth of witchcraft.

     A creative playwright like Euripides may or may not imagine the purposes his or her play would eventually serve.  It is for spectators and readers to decide whether a play serves any purpose whatsoever beyond its essential literary merit.  To the ancient Greeks, Medea by Euripides was another Greek tragedy.  They were accustomed to this genre.  Besides, Medea spoke of ancient Greek gods and goddesses  referred to as myths in modern writings about ancient Greek religion  as did various other writings of the time, including Euripides works.  Hence, Medea must have been another addition to Greek tragedies speaking of gods and goddesses, thereby adding value to literature of the time whilst allowing the spectators and readers of the play to make connections between Medea and other Greek tragedies speaking of gods and goddesses.   

     Medea, the passionate woman in Euripides play of the same name, is divine enough to ride the sun god of the pagans, Helios chariot.  Yet she is wicked and ruthless, and she understands that she is a barbarian.  She tells Jason, I am the mother of your children.  Whither can I fly, since all Greece hates the barbarian (Euripides).  She is a murderess, too, a woman who is capable of killing her own children.  Thus, she is in no position to teach ethics, morality or values to ancient Greek society where this play was aired the first time.  Then again, her divine persona serves as an excuse for her barbaric mindset and behavior.  Should ancient Greek women take her for a model to emulate  If so, the entire ancient Greek society would turn barbaric seeing that all mothers would be contemplating murders of their children.  Because all ancient Greek writings do not show barbaric women, as oppressive and cold-blooded as Medea, however, it must be assumed that Medea is an example not to follow.  If she had been perceived as a good character, or a pardonable one, other ancient Greek writings would most likely show the effect or ancient Greek history would reveal that most women took Medea as a model to emulate.  But, this did not happen. 

     In fact, Medea, the play, makes a mockery of ancient Greek gods and goddesses.  It also takes a critical look at ancient Greek culture.  Jason has betrayed his wife, Medea, and yet he claims that he has done what he considered was best.  He even claims that he has behaved like a civilized man rather than the barbaric ones that Medea would be exposed to in her own place of origin.  Medea, the play, considers the fact that people who claim to be civilized  as did the ancient Greeks  do not necessarily behave like cultured people with ethics.  Perhaps Euripides knew that this was happening in every other rich home in ancient Greece.  Regardless, the play looks upon ancient Greek society realistically.  Ethical problems are everywhere, which is why ancient Greece created great philosophers of morality such as Socrates.

     Thus, the main purpose of the play, Medea, in the time that it is set is truth telling or exposure of societal realities.  Euripides could have written about a refined woman instead  one who handled her emotional problems in a peacable manner.  What is more, Medea could have been a model to emulate given her divine persona.  However, Euripides would like to expose the flaws in ancient gods and goddesses, just as he allows truth to be told when it comes to ancient Greek culture.  Jason could have been a sophisticated man behaving ethically.  But, Euripides knows that all men who claim to be civilized do not always behave ethically.  Hence, the exposure of incivility in ancient Greek civilization must have been thought-provoking for the people of the time.  Many spectators and readers of Medea in ancient Greece must also have identified with the main characters of the play.  

     To modern readers, Medea is not really a divine figure, and ancient Greek religion is only paganism.  Nobody looks up to Medea as a goddess.  Modern civilization also does not make high priests of morality such as Socrates.  Furthermore, nobody believes that people in the civilized world are always mindful of morality and ethics.  Imagine if Bill Clinton had addressed Hillary Clinton with the words of Jason once his affair with Monica Lewinsky had been publicized
         It is not now I first remark, but oft ere this, how unruly a pest is a harsh temper. For
         instance, thou, hadst thou but patiently endured the will of thy superiors, mightest have
         remained here in this land and house, but now for thy idle words wilt thou be banished. Thy 
         words are naught to me. Cease not to call Jason basest of men but for those words thou
         hast spoken against our rulers, count it all gain that exile is thy only punishment. I ever   
         tried to check the outbursts of the angry monarch, and would have had thee stay, but thou
         wouldst not forego thy silly rage, always reviling our rulers, and so thou wilt be banished
         (Euripides)

Passionate women, both adulteresses and murderesses, abound in modern literature and films.  Thus, Medeas mindset and behavior is not as shocking to the modern reader as it may have been to ancient Greeks.  Modern civilization also does not frown upon criticism of rulers or political leaders.  If societal flaws are exposed through films, literature or modern media, viewers and readers are expected to learn their lessons from this exposure, that is, to refrain from following the example of individuals such as Medea and other criminals.  Even the likes of Jason and Bill Clinton are not expected to serve as models to emulate in every way, seeing that these individuals pretend to be cultured when, in fact, their moral flaws have been exposed.  Assuming that the ancient Greeks did not appreciate Jason and Media as models to emulate either, public reaction to the play, Medea, in the context of ethics and values must be the same then and now.  Then again, Jason and Medea are not divine characters for modern-day readers.  The play does not mortify the modern civilization as it did the ancient Greeks.

     Lastly, modern civilization has developed feminist theories around facts of gender inequality in literature, arts, economics, sociology, philosophy, anthropology and all other areas of knowledge with elements of feminist politics.  Feminist philosophy was unheard of at the time Medea was first published.  The woman, Medea, is reacting to Jasons insult.  Although women continue to be abused in modern-day literature and films, there are plenty who fight back as well.  More importantly, they know that they cannot easily fly away from social control, including laws, after behaving brutishly like Medea.  After all, Medeas divine nature was only fictional.  Women have to deal with modern-day realities as they tackle injustice.  Nevertheless, many readers of Medea would identify with the characters of Euripides play.  Female readers may even experience the sprinkling of salt on their wounds as they peruse this play.