West European Studies

The Battle of Crcy is a major event in the European history. The Hundred Years War, The Battle of Crcy fought between France and England was a great struggle that lasted for more than hundred years (with several years in between without conflict). The battle commenced on 26th August 1346 in Northern France. There were violent battles and occasions in which ideals of chivalry were exhibited. The battle was fought at the French village of Crcy-en-Ponthieu near the English Channel, as Edward III of England marched his army from Normandy to Flanders. The result of the battle reavealed that foot soldiers who use simple longbows can defeat knights who are armed with complex arms. The battle proved that knight does not have any kind supremacy over others. Because of all this the battle of Crcy is termed as death knell of feudalism. The victory in this battle made England a major military power.

An English and Welsh army fought against an army comprising French, Flemings, Bohemians, Savoyards Germans, and Luxemburgers. The generals in the Battle of Crcy include King Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, and the king of France, Philip VI. The English army consisted of 4,000 knights and armed men, 7,000 English and Welsh archers. Apart from this there were 5,000 Welsh and Irish spearmen. In the battle of Crcy the English army with 12,000 to 16,000 members, led by  . Though the army of Philip VI heavily outnumbered the English army, the latter group was victorious because of their weaponry and tactics.

Following the commencement of war in 1337, the first war in the Hundred Years War Hundred Years War was the   Battle of Sluys Battle of Sluys was on 24 June 1340. Few years after the battle, Edward tried to attack France through.  He however failed in his endeavor because of unstable alliances and financial difficulties. Edward came up with a different plan six years later. Edward attempted to attack France through a different route. He launched a heavy raid along the lands of Normandy. He found success at the Battle of Blanchetaque Battle of Blanchetaque (on 24 August) and Caen (on 26 July). The plan of France to trap the English forces between the rivers of English escape resulted in the Battle of Crcy.

The battle is considered by many historians as the battle that marks the end of the classic chivalry. The Battle of Crcy also witnessed the first real use of  Europe. The political consequences of the battle are not ignorable. The result of the war was significant for who had financed and supplied resources for his journey to. Even though the English causalities were not serious, thousands of soldiers of the French army and the allied army dies. The counts of Flanders, Alenon, and King a French ally and Blois,  Duke of Lorraine Rudolph, Duke of Lorraine are among them the important people who died.  Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV from the House of Luxembourg House of Luxembourg had his father dead. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV also lost many of his knights. Charles himself was wounded in the war.

The Protestant Reformation
The 16th century in Europe was very much eventful. The artists and humanists of the Renaissance period make it a period of self-creativity and individualism. Humanists like Petrarch upheld the dignity of mankind. People like Machiavelli, at the same time, injected humanism into politics. Renaissance enabled the secularization of European society. Man is no longer the slave of his destiny now he is rather the architect of his destiny. Renaissance created the notion that man is responsible for his history. There are numerous events that need to be highlighted especially in the fields of literature and the arts. The greatest affair of the 16th century Europe and the most revolutionary incident was nothing but the Protestant Reformation. Reformation forced people to be either a Catholic or Protestant. This was a mandatory choice to be made. In the context of the crucial religious wars happened in the 16th and 17th centuries, people had to be either a Catholic or a protestant.

The most dominant figure in the Reformation period was. Luther happened to enter the University of Erfurt, which the place of a conflict between the Renaissance humanists and the Scholastics, who mixed theology and medieval philosophy. Luther rejected the world after he had an encounter with the power of God. He recognized that he can no longer recognize faith with his worldly desires and ambitions. God spoke to him through the passage from the Epistles of St. Paul For the justice of God is revealed from faith to faith in that it is written, for the just shall live by faith. Luthers advice to the Church to return to the original teachings of the Bible led to the new traditions in Christianity. It also resulted in the Counter-Reformation in the Roman Catholic Church.

This finally culminated in the formation of the Council of Trent. Martin Luthers translation of the Bible presented a standard version of the German language and novel principles and styles to the very art of translation. The hymns he wrote triggered the development of congregational singing found in Christian gatherings. His marriage with a former num started the practice of clerical marriage among Christian groups. 

In the ancient Roman civilization, there is the post-Republican phase that constituted the Roman Empire. This empire constituted emperors that were practicing an autocratic form of leadership in their governments. Large territorial holdings found around the Mediterranean and in Europe characterized it. This term used to refer to all the Roman States during the time of the first emperor by the name of Augustus and after him. After Augustus, there emerged other modest emperors such as Caesar Augustus, Cicero, Hadrian and Traijan. These leaders had different but admirable ethical and political values.

Looking at Cicero, he was born on third of January 106 BC and happened to be a Roman political leader, philosopher, political theorist, lawyer and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy family and he is considered as one of the greatest prose stylist and orator in Rome during his time. The early Catholic Church declared him a righteous pagan and this made majority of his work to be termed good if it was preserved.  Those writers who followed him quoted on his writings especially On the Laws and On the Republic and this resulted to recreation of most of his work especially from the surviving fragments.

In his work, Cicero is said to explore the role of philosophy and rhetoric in the public life. This can be found in his first work under the title On the Orator. For a long period, this had been the potent tool in all the Roman politics. Ciceros main aim was to legitimize the influence of Roman politics and at the same time reinforce its prestige. He argued that this could only be achieved through success, which usually needs sound reasoning and a wide range of learning. He argued that a constitution that will be the best is unattainable, and it is a unique blend of aristocracy, monarchy and formed by democracy. He referred to it as a mixed constitution, which would provide an ostensibly stable and just system of government.

On the issue of ethics, he speaks throughout as an academic skeptic and argues that the Epicurean hedonism is usually morally subversive and incoherent. He also challenges the Stoic doctrine which argues that moral virtues is the only sole good and therefore, it is sufficient for happiness. He however commends theoretical rigor and moral austerity of Stoic ethics.

Julius Caesar Augustus was born on 23rd of September 63 BC and he was the Roman Empires first emperor. He ruled this empire from 31 BC to his time of death in AD 14. He had a collection of powers granted to him by the senate for life. They included those of censor and tribune of the plebs.

Caesar declined the offer to take the dictatorship held by Sulla who was before him. However, he had a substantive power, which was from resources gathered in conquest and financial success. This was also gained from the relationship among the patronage throughout the empire. He is said to fight for the rights of women shortly after the death of his wife. This was attributed to his weakened emotions. Even though this received a lot of criticism and at the same time, he was accused of treason, Caesar was not sentenced and this had very little if any damage to his political career. According to him, degrading women was unethical and unacceptable.

In his politics, Caesar saw to it that there was loyalty among veterans and the military soldiers and in the authority of the many honors that he received from the Senate. He also ensured that all the people gave respected to one another. He was able to eliminate senatorial opposition using arms and this made the senate docile towards his position, which was paramount. He used to rule through patronage, accumulation of the defunct Republic offices and the military a model later used by all the other government that followed.

Traijan also referred to as Marcus Trajanus was born on 18th of September 53 BC was the roman emperor from 98 to 117 when he died. Just like Cicero, he came from a wealthy family and he rose to be an emperor after serving as a general in the army during the German frontier. As an administrator, he had very good relationship with the senate at Rome and therefore he had a chance to have an extensive public building program that is reshaped Rome. He was an ambitious man in that he celebrated his greatest triumphs while he was a military commander. He had a serious of successful activities such as launching a punitive expedition in Dacia, defeating the army of Dacia and finally conquering it later on. He was also an enduring empire and he ranked second after Augustus. Unlike Cicero, the medieval Christian theologians considered him a virtuous pagan. This made his reputation to survive undiminished for close to 19 centuries. Due this stand on ethical issues and the Christianization of Rome, there was further embellishment of his legend. He is termed as one of the just leaders of all times.

Hadrian was born on 117 A.D. and was a roman emperor when there was a lot of building projects. He was one of the five good Roman emperors of all times. Just like Cicero, the Stoic philosophy influenced him to becoming an emperor. He travelled a lot to the Trajan Expansion but did not add up to it. He happened to rectify the tax situation and at the same time defended those who were weak against the strong.

He became a military tribune toward the end of the Domitian Reign and became questor in 101 B.C. later on he was to become the curator of the senate after when together with Trajan they went to the Dacian War. 

During this time, he helped the poor so much. He gave large sums of money to individuals and to communities. He also allowed children of some specific people to inherit part of the estate. He also declined to take legacies from those people that he did not know or from those people who had sons who could inherit them. He also changed the laws in that, if a master happens to die in his home because of murder, only those slaves that lived within would be tortured unlike the previous time when all the slaves will be responsible.

In conclusion, even though these leaders were ruling the Roman Empire during different time, it is clear that all of them are great leaders as they had different but outstanding ethical and political values. Some of them had their legacy passing from one generation to the next and some had it passing for over nineteen centuries. They can be termed as the one responsible for shaping the Roman Empire for years that followed. Even though some of them never had any active performance on politics, their actions of generosity and fight for human rights demonstrated their values.

A 2005 film circling around the World War I Christmas Truce during 1914, Joyeux Noel is a movie that is depicted though the eyes of German, French, and Scottish Soldiers. Written and directed by Christian Carion, this film was screened out of competition during the Cannes Film Festival in 2005. This film was nominated during the 78th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film.
The film revolves around six characters a Scottish Lieutenant, Gordon a French Lieutenant, Audebert a Jewish German Lieutenant, Horstmayer a British priest who works as a stretcher-bearer, Palmer German tenor, Nikolaus Sprink and his Danish lover, Anna Sorensen.

The film starts with a flashback of some schoolboys who were taught to recite expressions that give praise to their countries and at the same time produce disgust of their foes. Jonathan and William are two young brothers in Scotland who enlist to fight. They were followed by Palmer, their Roman Catholic priest. The Scots and French took in charge of a joint attack during Christmas Eve on the German trenches in France. Jonathan has to leave his wounded brother, William behind as they retreat. Meanwhile in Germany, Anna gets authorization to perform for the Crown Prince of Prussia.
The Scots then start singing Christmas songs. They used bagpipes as accompaniments. Sprink responds to them by singing to his comrades and exiting the trench singing Adeste Fideles. The French, German and Scottish officers met and they all agreed on a truce. Many soldiers met and greeted one another Merry Christmas. There have been exchanges of chocolates, champagnes and photographs. Horstmayer gives Audebert the wallet he lost containing his wifes photograph. A mass was celebrated by the Scots and Palmer.

On the day of Christmas, the officers were having coffee when they decided to bury their dead on that day. They had also played football with one another. The next day, the commanders have decided that it is time for all of them to go on their own ways. During the separation, Audebert tells Horstmayer that his (Horstmayers) French is better than his (Audeberts) German. Horstmayer replies to him implying that hes married to a French woman and not to a German woman.
Nikolaus Sprink gets arrested for disobedience while his lover, Anna is sent back to Berlin. They both remain with the French after they were protected from the artillery attack. They had asked to be taken as prisoners just to be together.

Palmer was sent back to his parish and his regiment broke up. He was scolded by the Bishop who goes on preaching the troops to kill the Germans, whether good or bad, young or old. He preaches them to kill every single German so that it wont have to be repeated again.
In the trenches, a Major commands the Scots to gun down a German soldier who defies going over the no-mans land. The Scots dont except for the revengeful Jonathan who was able to kill him. The German soldier is Ponchel who only disguised being German. He reveals that a German helped him see his mother and have coffee as they had always had before the War.

The French Lieutenant was scolded by his General who is also his father. He was sent to Verdun as a punishment. The Lieutenant rushes out and tells his father that he does not understand what men go through on the border lines. As the General was about to leave, his son tells him about Henri, the dead German soldiers son and the General advises that they must both try and survive the war.
The Crown Prince informs the German that they are to be brought to the Eastern Front without having the chance to go on leave to be able to see their families while they pass Germany. The Crown Prince then takes a harmonica and stomped on it repeatedly. As the train leaves, they start to sing a Scottish carol they have learned during the events. That carol would eventually become the tune for LHymne des Fraterniss Im Dreaming Of Home. The word Tannenberg is painted on the side of the cars. They saw this word as their train pulls away. This place was where the Germans achieved victory over the Russians.

consecrate the religious notions. They also constitute a significant portion of the ordained ministry (Davie178). In the Orthodox as well as the Catholic traditions, this is not the case as they are barred and the ancient tradition is still maintained.
Implicit in the concept of religious memorys vicariousness that is prevalent in European religion is the loose balancing between religious majorities as well as minorities. As such this notion in modern European religion gave birth to secularization which ultimately was used as a platform for the establishment of the lower orders. As such doing something on another individuals behalf implied that both parties that are affected by this action are aware of the occurrence even if they are minorities. This implied that the dominant religion, Christianity had to give way to secular aspects as well as other religions into Europe. As a result of the loose regulation that characterised this lower orders they gained much membership which was further aggravated by the tight regulation that prevailed in traditional Christianity especially catholism. Consequently European religion has lost its members to lower orders which have swelled as a result of their deregulation. This has led to the rise of the lower orders.
Three things arise with regard to the viability of religion in Europe at the national level in the modern era. Illustration from central as well as Eastern Europe points out the inherent need to reconstitute the constitutional presence as well as public acceptability. These institutions are considered fundamental and absolutely critical for the survival of European religion. The form that religion has taken in order to accommodate this change has widely been disputed.
There were also attempts to further privileges of the religion so as to reach an equal level with the new arrivals. In Europe all religions admire and compete to get these privileges.
There is also a developing trend among the press that is primarily described as the secular group developed an attitude towards the guardians of the faith. To a vast majority of population, this is not to be perceived as being indifferent to religion but it should be primarily regarded as vigilance.
There also exist relations between religion and politics, on one side of the dimension as well as religion and the state, on the opposite side of the coin. Politicians running for national as well as regional seats, are not foreign to invoking sentiments with religious overtones so as to lure the compact majority into supporting their bid for office a concept that is known as cultural power (Demerath and Rhys Williams 120). In Europe the concept of dissociating the state from religion is prevalent. Such is the case in France where the country has seen the burning of wearing of the hijab in public places. In Italy, several quarters have aired their concern about removing religious symbols from learning institutions as they are perceived as indoctrination and attempts to further religious dogma. There also is a prevalent trend which primarily sees politicians embrace religion while in pursuit of power but its abandonment as it is seen as a burden that can deteriorate public ratings.
The concept of individuality in religion can be attributed to the emergence of enlightment. As such the individual who were more enlightened could seek individual perspectives and pursue this perspective. As such there arose individual definitions of eternity in religion, politicians sought idealization and society pursued goals that were primarily endeared towards personal prosperity.
The modern European state also sought to undertake various measures with regard to economic restructuring to yield changes that ideally were viable enough to sustain economic growth. The desirable changes were in conflict with religion as religion in contrast to capitalism promoted the idea of my brothers keeper. Capitalism on the other hand promoted personal pursuit of wealth with the intention of creating the said wealth regardless of the predicament of the individual. Europe compromised religion and sought to formulate and systemize models that embraced better forms of organization that could sustain this need. The state embraced diversified economies with an array of social as well as political and cultural organizations creating an effective social structure. Parties with a Christian background have also ceded more ground undergoing immense mutation to embrace a varied array of pressure groups as well as social movements (Davie 179).
In understanding the past, primary sources come in as significantly important as they render the information out with utmost accuracy. There description can be taken to be the actual happening as their exposure is in the nuclear of the event. There is a risk though as there is a tendency to expect candour and disclosure bereft of other elements that meditate against telling of truth. As Freud postulated, it is simply not feasible to take this accounts as the real truth as there will always be subconscious desires, private emotions as well as dip seated motives that meditate against the truth.

The French Revolution was a turning point in the history of France. This Revolution which occurred in 1979 brought about radical change in the history of France and was accompanied by social and political upheaval. During this time, the France government adopted some radical changes taking concern of citizens rights. The French government followed a monarchial structure before the revolution defined by king and church clergy. The changes brought about violent turmoil. This contributed to the trial of the France king. During the revolution, there was a lot of bloodshed which was also experienced in other European power. There are some outstanding events which can be traced to the revolution (Stewart, 58). These include Napoleonic Wars.
    Britain and United States took the lead in advocating for the modern human rights. They adopted these human rights even before the French Revolution which prospered Human Rights in France. Britain and United States adopted both the civil and political rights. These rights included freedom of expression, law equality and government participation. Social and economic rights are also comprised in the human rights. The right of movement which enables one to move from hisher native land is also part of the human rights. The alleviation from a class is also encompassed in the human rights (Stewart, 20). The French peasants were affected as a result of income fluctuation. At the eve of the eighteenth century French had an upheaval from the French society which comprised of middle class people, women and the poor. They demanded for social, political and economic rights which were deprived from them. The French Revolution occurred as a result of the French society which soothed for consideration to apply in the all nation. French was previously dominated by aristocrats, clergy and king. French society was transformed through the revolution. This capsized after a decade with the rise of Napoleon into power. France required subsequent revolutions to acquire a nation for the entire people.
    Life was terrible before the revolution. There were no economic and civil rights for the women. Women were reliable to the mandates of their fathers and husband. They were to liaise with their father and husbands for inheritance rights. Women had no rights of ruling on their property. Women were not entitled to economic rights and thus the working women had to bare suppression from the male. The females occupations were intruded by males thus leaving the women with less respectable jobs. French peasant also stood at the losing end. They lived in wild conditions having been denied the basic human rights. Feudal system was applied allowing acquiring of large pieces of land by Feudal Lords (Stewart, 77). Majority of the peasants were caught up in poverty with some being lucky to acquire small pieces of land through purchasing. Peasants were liable to the Lords by paying rents as well as giving out crops. The government demanded huge taxes from the peasants. The taxing system was unfair since a lot of wealth went untaxed. Noble people, church and big landowners were spared from paying taxes.
    France middle class was also involved in fighting for the unequal treatment prevailing tin the society. Middle class enjoyed substantial services through intermarrying with upper class. The French revolution was culminated by the unsettled French society which comprised of women, the middle class and the poor. French revolution comprised demand for human rights demanded by the French society who felt shortchanged. Women demanded for both political and economic rights. Violence was witnessed in fulfilling peasants demands. The middle class advocated for a national assembly (Stewart, 109). There subsequent revolution for the attainment of human rights in the entire nation.

                                      Commercial Revolution and Industrial Revolution
 In the history of Mankind, humans have always tried to change the environment they are living at some extent for purpose of surviving and anticipating the future. Without changes society today would be living in medieval and ancient times but the force of change gives humanity no choice but to adapt, these changes shaped the world to greater transformations beyond imagination. Change has never been constant and with its dynamic effect it produced a concept of revolution which has completely defined the political, social and economic aspects of life in the world. Revolution was not done in an instance rather it was a gradual process which took time and effort to alter the traditional models. Industrial and commercial revolution did not only start a few centuries ago but historically it has been a process started by empires and people since the existence of the mankind but never has been a period which completely changed the world than the Commercial and Industrial revolution of the early 12th century to late 19th century. This was a period when the world shifted from traditional way of life to advancement in modernity. It started from simple structural changes to mechanizations and complex financial systems which served as the guide of any future transactions. That period was the cornerstone of revolution in the modern society.
                                      Industrial Revolution and Urbanization
Mushrooming of factories in urban areas led to an increase in manufacturing designated areas. Growth of urban and towns started as population was also increasing and people were concentrated in particular areas where there were manufacturing activities .Rural-urban migration was induced by movement of labor from areas with no activities to zones where they could earn an income in the factories and the areas were hence urbanized. Civilization of having good life in those areas was also another motivating factor leading to people to flock to the cities. Improvement in modern housing as stable and steel made houses improved living conditions and shift from the poor structured shacks which were characterized by pathetic sanitation, overcrowding and poor planned.
                               Commercial Revolution and Urbanization
Like Industrial revolution Commercial revolution similarly contributed immensely in urbanization as people were flocking to the central market place to dispose and buy their goods and thus affected the movement of people from rural to urban areas where they could trade easily. There was a shift in demographic numbers as population rose significantly from small towns which were not noticed by both traders and businessmen to bustling and busy towns which everyone wanted to reside there.
                               Industrial Revolution and Labor Exploitation
With the great demand for coal and scarcity of workers women and very young children had been increasingly employed in the pits (Knowles 126). Despite the positive developments brought by the industrial revolution in the transformation of humanity the rapid expansion of factories and manufacturing meant more labor was needed to produce goods and fill the economic sectors. Labor was now required at any cost and exploitation of peasants started as workers were forced to work in deplorable condition leading to many deaths in the mines and inhumane treatment of women and children as young as 13 years old. Population was increasing in the urban centers in search of better life and the businessmen and elite took the advantage of sometimes excess supply of labor and under paid employees also. Social classes developed as people were divided according to the economic ability and this led to classes which were deprived while the nobles and businessmen were the ruling class. Society was then divided in this case and even basic resources were distributed on bias rather than necessity.
                                   Commercial Revolution and Labor Exploitation
Like Industrialization, Commercial revolution also engaged in activities of exploitation of labor both within their countries and abroad. It is during exploration and trade in parts of Africa when slave trade started. Greedy businessmen knew of the labor shortage in Europe and they colluded and hoodwinked some leaders in Africa who gave them a leeway to export humans to Europe. They used the cheap labor not only for monetary gains but also used them in transportation of their goods in water vessels and land. In their home countries they also created indirect caste system as the rich were treated with dignity while the paupers who were laborers and slave did not deserve any privilege in the society. 
                                     Industrial Revolution and Colonialism
In the half century after 1660 the competition among European nations for control in north America increased and its resources sharpened (Engerman 22). Scramble for resources to sustain the domestic economic demand surged. Due to industrialization resources started to become scarce and countries were forced to venture into other lands to get foothold of the resources. Although coal, wood and raw materials were in Europe the countries ensured they had enough reserves to sustain their economies for many years and they knew using the resources they had would be depleted in a matter of time so this way they focused to get into other regions where they could gain enough raw materials. This factor of having sufficient raw materials was not only important for the economic growth but the country also gave itself a competitive edge over others in terms of superiority in power.
                                    Commercial Revolution and Colonialism
Similarly Commercial Revolution driven by demand of goods in European countries, the explorers, businessmen and traders started to get into agreement with different countries on how they could protect the raw materials from other countries who also wanted to have them. Slowly they started to put the areas in control and colonialism emerged. The traders were ready to take any risk to ensure they maintain the profits and this led them to even use force to protect the interests which they desired. Using capital and superior technology they used force in most regions which they were targeting and established their rule. Superiority was also an important factor as the more regions a country had the more powerful and feared it was.
                                     Commercial Revolution and Trade
It embraces the remarkable expansion of international trade to Asia, the Western Hemisphere and Africa in the wake of voyages of discoveries at the start of 15th century (Rostow 107). The concept of trade was one of the driving forces of the commercial revolution in the world. Countries especially those in Europe were in need of resources and raw materials to sustain their local economies. There was an increase in demand for exotic products from other areas and the local supply of common products was decreasing as the consumption and demand of the materials surged. Businessmen and explorers started to travel and exploit foreign lands and regions where they met raw materials which were useful in their domestic economy which culminated in the exchange of goods between countries some which were near and others were as far as in Africa and Asia and North America where specific raw materials and goods were located. Water vessels like canoes and dhows spurred the trade as it increased the reliability and accessibility of the markets. Merchants of trade emerged and trading was beginning to take a structured shape .Although during the beginning of the commercial revolution there were no centralized market place where merchants from different countries and regions could gather and trade the products common place markets within the country and strategic points of meeting by merchants from different regions started to be developed.
                          Industrial Revolution and Innovation and Invention of Tools
Industrial revolution was a period of rapid development, roughly between 1780 and 1830 in Britain during which new forms of energy from coal and other fossils fuels powered machines rather than muscles wind and power (James 141) .Unlike commercial revolution which had trade as its foundation development during industrial revolution came as a result of invention of new tools which were to used to simply production processes of raw materials and mass production of goods. Focus was much concentrated in specialization of tasks to improve efficiency in production of the goods. Sophisticated tools were the main impetus of the industrial revolution. The demand of goods was also increasing in the domestic economy and the traditional methods of production were slow, extreme labor consuming and unreliable. Exploitation of natural resources to be used in the production process also played a part in the invention and innovation of new modern tools used in the industrialization. Even mechanization had a precedent, however for wind and water mills both quite complex pieces of machinery, were already ubiquitous in more developed countries while there had been already developments in textile machinery ( More  4).
                          Commercial Revolution and Monetary Economic System
Commercial revolution depended on capital (Beninger 10). Using advanced water vessels to explore virgin markets traders explored new markets where they discovered great potential of raw materials which could be used in their growing economies. Barter trade was now becoming obsolete and though some of the countries which they explored did not have other forms of exchange they developed medium of exchanges which had monetary value. Gold and silver has been used during the ancient time for transactions in trade but they were now becoming scarce and it was a must to get the prestigious metals which had the monetary value to have uniformity when trading. Traders now used relied on agreed capital to purchase and sell the goods not only in Europe but also in parts of Asia and Middle East. Gold as a valuable metal was universal accepted as medium of exchange and the traders had a unanimous agreement of using it. Economic system now shifted to money driven as coins were made out of gold and given monetary value. Capital accumulation was the desire of every trader as the more capital a person had the wealthier and respected  in the society giving birth to mercantilism .Profit became an important goal and businessmen and nations were rushing to accumulate as much raw materials and resources as they could to safeguard and establish status around the continent and world. Since then money was used official as the only acceptable form of exchanging goods.
                   Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution and Mechanization
On the other hand industrial revolution relied heavily on mechanization process which started from the agricultural sector in Great Britain becoming an integral and pioneer of the industrial revolution in Europe and the world. Machines Land and Labor were major components utilized during the process of industrialization.   Farm and agricultural products were the source of economy growth in the countries during industrialization period. Cotton and silk production was now done in mass production to satisfy the economic demand of the country. Agrarian revolution became a spring board for the advancement of the industrial revolution. Innovation of the machine tools like spinning machines, flying shuttles took a centre stage to improve efficiency in the clothing industry during the period. Surplus production of textile led to exportation of cloths in other regions, continents and exchange of goods led to increase in income with the merchants and businessmen. Organization of labor was now necessary as the more machines improved production human labor was able to be organized in a more technical manner where it could improve the production and decrease the waste usual associated with traditional methods of labor. Specialization of work came into effect as people worked concentrated in special designated tasks where they increased the output with high quality. An increase in the number of machines led to the manufacturing sector to develop and food production in the economy was increased tremendously.
                                 Commercial Contracts and Financial Institutions
The Development of commercial contract is crucial in the history of trade as tools and techniques in the history of agriculture (Lopez 73). Trading was mainly done informal and the systems used were not efficient and could not be trusted and executed in many transactions. Credit trade was developed and there were no mechanisms to execute and this led to development of official contracts which were binding between the seller and the buyer with default leading to consequences. Credit was now an acceptable form of trade as there were efficient models which would be used. As credit was widely used traders started to lend their goods on credit with an interest on top of the value of goods given.  Formal and standard agreements were now to be developed to take into consideration of the new aspects like interest. Goods were now having a fixed value exchanged with gold coins and traders could now lend not only goods but money for the traders to assist them to purchase goods if they had deficit in money while in the market and in turn earn interest. Banking was thus developed as traders wanted a central place where they could access credit with ease and the banks were charging an interest. In every market where traders were converging there was a bank which had extra money to lend to the businessmen and explorers who wanted to purchase the goods. Financial centers were now developed in the urban areas and its environs. Piracy was common, extreme weather conditions which were leading to capsizing of the vessels navigating or spoiling of goods in the market and defaults were frequent risks and the traders wanted to ensure that they could recover part if not all of the goods lost in cases of those unpredictable circumstances. Insurance of goods started with a merchants and traders paying an amount to cover the risks whether the incident will happen or not. Insurance concept in Europe, North America and across the world thus developed.
                         Technology Advancement and Infrastructural Development
Unlike commercial revolution which strengthened and modernized the financial markets Industrial revolution spurred technology advancement in tools and influenced development of the infrastructure. Growth of industrialization was boosted invention and innovation in machines, skills and technology which were adapted and replicated in other fields to improve the others sectors which were still based on traditional models and were very poor in efficiency and effectiveness. Energy became a vital component to spur the economic growth of Great Britain and other European countries and focus was turned on looking the appropriate and conducive alternative form of energy. The use of power meant concentration in the factories ,the steam engine was adopted later to form a strong and more reliable power than the water and there was fresh demand for iron for machines and steam engines and an increased demand for coal to create steam power(Knowles 16). This led to immediate replacement of the traditional form of energy which was water powered and introduction of new form of energy. Mining activities immediately increased as the demand for the coal and iron surged and with booming of industries it now becomes an industry of its own. There was more room for invention and more machines were designed to be used in many sectors. Wood fuel was replaced by with coal used to power factories steam engines, water vessels and was the only source of energy which was being relied and depended upon to spur the economic growth. Iron ore was smelted and started to be used in construction of building and infrastructure developments like bridges, commercial factories and even domestic housing. Machines and tools started to be made from the smelted iron and though it was expensive massive production and iron smiths enhanced the production of the prestigious metal and metal become a key component in all industries. There was stimulation of economic activities within the country as construction of infrastructure started to be developed. Bridges, roads and rail network was put in place due to the production of the steel and iron which was the raw materials used in the building of the infrastructure. Fast movement of goods from location of production to targeted market place was the norm, locomotives were used in railways and carriages were developed to increase the reliability of both people and goods. Roads, bridges and railways interconnected the rural undeveloped areas and the small market places where towns were built. Steam powered canals were large and powerful and now used to transport large quantities of goods across waterways and an improvement in the number of goods flowing across the Europe increased by tenfold. Modern transportation here replaced the use of animals that were used in the agrarian economies.
Moreover technology and the industrial revolution in Europe irrevocably changed the course of history not only in Europe won territories but all over the world (Cippola 300). Europe was foundation of industrial revolution from Britain, France Spain to Italy and Belgium transformation of the socio economy structures was taking at breathtaking speed and knowledge and skills started to be transferred to other continents and new lands. Merchants, sailors and explorers using steam propelled engines were able to get into further areas of Africa, Asia and North America and transfer of knowledge and skills to those areas started. Machines and modern tools from Europe were shipped and used to explore resources in different continents thus leading the explored countries to benefit with the high technology and skills. More people learned the skills of using the tools and they tried to improve the existing technologies brought so as to suit their economies. Civilization  through industrialization spread to the traditional  archaic economies and human way of life was completely changed ,from clothing ,eating and working the life had completely changed for human beings not only in Europe but throughout the world as technology was now shared and taught to other people in Africa ,North America (United States) and Asia.

The reign of Otto I (912-973) saw the consolidation of the German state, and reconstitution of the Holy Roman Empire and the development of a highly literate, state church awash in income and state favors. The literature on medieval Europe is constantly concerned with Otto, the church and the resultant Ottonian renaissance he created. The writers on this topic are usually divided on the moral justification for his removal of Pope John VIII, the election of his own candidate and his military methods in Italy. Even more, this literature also is divided on the nature of the state church. Few however, disagree that Otto was one of the most powerful and influential figures of the middle ages.

Bernhardt, John (1993) Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany     936-1075. Cambridge University Press

    This book is one of the few works specializing in the topic of Otto and the church. Most of this literature is a part of a larger thesis of which Otto is an important aspect. This book, however, specializes in the relation of Ottos government to the German church. In fact, it is difficult to speak of Otto I at all without mentioning the church, since the bishops and abbots were his creatures and served, for a time, to control, the higher nobility and the Frankish (anti-Saxon) nation as a whole. Ottos role in the monasteries was to sponsor reform movements and councils that eliminated laxity and illiteracy from them. Abbots became the stewards of Ottos lands, and they became the literary centers of the Ottonian Renaissance. In this way did Otto break the back of powerful families to the south and west of Germany.
    Even more than this, Otto was at the center of clerical education, producing monastically trained scholars who could not only rule, but defend the idea of theocratic kingship. From all of this came a stable of loyal bishops and abbots who were educated and on the whole, pious people. In terms of the state itself, Otto had no functioning bureaucracy, and hence, the church became the real backbone of political rule. Otto was itinerant, like many medieval kings, traveling from place to place, holding court and punishing the disloyal. The main stopping points on the Ottonian journeys were the powerful cathedrals and abbeys of the real, continually shoring up his support.

Leyser, Karl (1982) Medieval Germany and its Neighbors, 900-1250. Hambeldon Press

    This work spends quite a bit of time on Otto and the renaissance he created. The main means of typifying Ottonian rule is the formula  patrimony over bureaucracy.  This means that the state was based around Ottos theoretical ownership of the land and, from this, is ability to reward his loyal friends with large grants. For Otto I, this meant that the major abbeys and cathedrals were granted not only large grants of land, but freedom from taxes, tolls and corporal punishment that made them the masters of the countryside and dominant in the cities. Leyser is the only major author on this topic to mention the  aronga,  a semi-sacred diploma that served to  grant lands and privileges to the clerical and lay defenders of the new state. The aronga was invested with all the prestige and power of the empire, and was treated as official writ. While the upper level nobles wavered in their loyalty (especially the westerners), the church, armed with these grants of immunities, generally stayed close to Otto, though there are some exceptions to this.
    The state itself was staffed by clerics almost completely, as they were both the most loyal and the most literate parts of the population. Monasteries loyal to Otto were improved to turn them into fortresses, serving as royal bulwarks in a very literal sense. For Otto, he was little less than the  head of all Christendom  and this meant he was in charge of not only protecting the church, but staffing it, educating it and providing for its welfare in exchange for loyalty against the nobility and perseverance against the pagans to the east.

Bryce, James (1914) The Holy Roman Empire. Macmillan (cf esp  From Empire to German     Kingdom  pps 121-133)

    This substantial work was the standard in this field for years. Bryce, while speaking of the Ottonian state quite a bit, also focuses on Ottos adventures in Italy, closely connected to his domestic policy and the role of the church within it. Controlling the papacy was central for several reasons Otto did not want Rome to become a rallying point for disaffected nobles and clergy, he truly wanted  to reform the elite driven Roman political system which was deeply divided against itself. Lastly, Otto wanted a compliant papacy so as not for it to interfere with his centralizing program in Germany. Therefore, Italy was a central part of Ottonian domestic policy and the role of the church.
    Pope John XII, by all accounts a corrupt prelate, had attracted the anti-German party in Rome, and the anti-Otto faction in Germany. The corruption of Rome in general, and of John in particular, gave Otto both the duty and right to interfere in Italian politics. His army, financed by the domestic church, invaded Rome and eliminated the anti-German party, placing Leo VIII on the throne to the anger of the Roman mob. The foreign troops on Roman streets created riot conditions, and Otto was driven out of the city, only to re-invade twice before his death, using starvation tactics to force the city to surrender.
    The clear implication of the Bryce book is that one cannot understand domestic policy without foreign policy. In Ottos mind of course, Italy was domestic to the empire, but many Romans thought differently. Otto came face to face not just with the anti-German faction, but also the anti-imperial (i.e. republican) faction of Rome, leading to an ideological conflict on many levels. One can romanticize this faction as freedom loving urbanites fighting an overbearing king, or one can see them as self-interested oligarchs defending the corruption of John VIII. Brice refuses to take a side.

Cantor, Norman (1993) The Civilization of the Middle Ages. Harper Collins. (cf esp.  The     Ottonian Empire  pps 211-218

    This standard medieval history seeks to treat the Ottonians with as much neutrality as Bryce. Cantor seems a mild supporter of Ottos imperial policy relative to the church. Cantor holds that there were three pillars to Ottonian rule relative to the church at this time. The first, lay investiture, a well known concept that held a bishop or abbot could not take office without the imperial blessing. Secondly, the  lay advocacy,  or the idea that laymen can represent church properties and have tight control over finances. Lastly, the idea of homage being connected to investiture held that there was a politicallegal connection to the investiture of church dignitaries   the idea was that the bishopric was held as a fief, with the state as overlord. The church needed protection against avaricious nobles, and Otto needed a strong group of powerful and literate people to staff, control and justify central authority. These pillars represented the very structural function of Ottonian rule.
    Otto was crowned by the Archbishop of Mainz at Charlemagnes old capital of Aachen. This meant two things first, that Otto is holding that his empire is the continuation of that of Charles the Great, and second, that the German church will become a state church, something specifically German and part of the new empire. Otto, in other words, is declaring a new concept of kingship that holds Otto as head of all Christendom and protector of the church. This title of  protector  means that he also rules the church. This policy was so successful, that by the time of Ottos third invasion of Rome, over half the imperial troops were raised and financed by the church directly.

Clayton-Emmerson, Sandra (2006). Key Figures in Medieval Europe An Encyclopedia. CRC     Press

    This article stresses Ottos move to the east, seeking new lands and sources of revenue in converting the heathen Hungarians and Slavs. One this was done, Otto then planted powerful monastic institutions and cathedral churches that took advantage of the new lands opened up. This became yet another means whereby Otto took advantage of the church to increase the income to the state and create a loyal and dependent class of ecclesiastics. Specifically in the east, the protection and approbation of Otto was essential for the sake of protection against disaffected eastern pagans.
    Like other authors, Emmerson stresses the itinerant methods of Ottonian rule, using his constant travels to personally shore up support in the large monastic fortresses and cathedrals. This was an effective way of personally using the prestige of the Roman throne to control crime, brigandage and disloyalty. She also stresses that the silver mines in the east also served as another source of wealth for the Ottonian state which the church supplemented. These mines also served for new coinage that assisted the toll- and tax-free monasteries with their commercial expansion, a central part of the Ottonian Renaissance.
    This article also stresses Ottos campaigns in southern Italy (not mentioned in the other sources thus far) that sought to open new lands, take advantage of trade, and, importantly, add Byzantine approbation to Ottonian imperial claims. This latter was not forthcoming. It does show, however, that the Byzantines were still taken seriously as  real Romans  and their blessing was sought in order to shore up Ottonian claims to Roman-hood.

Fisher, H.A.L. (1898) The Medieval Empire, Vol II. Macmillan. (cf esp.  The Church in     Germany  pps 55-135)

    This substantial essay on the Ottonian church and its antecedents is important for this review. Fisher holds that Otto is really a part of a long, drawn out period of increasing imperial control over the church. Contrary to Cantor, there was an imperial ideology that Otto inherited, and hence, he was able to build upon it. In general, Fisher holds that this form of imperial control was not done out of any desire for conquest, but in order to reform the abuses, both aristocratic and ecclesiastic, within the church itself. Both the corruption of Rome and the corruption of many powerful abbeys forced monarchs from Louis the Pious to Otto to constantly intervene in church affairs.
    Like all other writers in this field, Fisher holds that the bishops and abbots were given ducal rights, and became an aristocratic class in their own right. The church needed to aid of the civil power against Roman exactions, eastern pagans and rapacious nobles, and hence, the state was seen as a savior against them. The state of course, also needed the churchs support, revenue and literary ability. In addition, the new aristocracy of the bishops was not hereditary, which meant that a every vacancy, the state was empowered to choose a successor. Hence, the lack of hereditary right became an important weapon against the older, secular aristocrats.
    What becomes more and more important as Ottos reign continues is the fact that the tax free status of bishoprics and monasteries means that commerce becomes a powerful factor in church life. All of this increases the revenues for both church and state, and Otto is able to outspend the aristocracy as well as the Roman factions. One important problem with this, and this is the only mention of it in this literature, is simony. Those whop pledge loyalty also gave great gifts, and hence, the Roman power had another excuse to fight the German state   bishops who  gifted  their way to power, according to canon law, are not bishops at all. This became an issue after Ottos death, when the Roman papacy got its act together and began to examine these issues. The result, of course, was the Gregorian reforms, done at the expense of the empire Otto built.

Emerton, Ephraim (1903) Medieval Europe, 814-1300. Ginn and Company (cf esp  Revival of     the Roman Empire on a German Basis, 888-950  pps 89-115)

    Despite its short length, this essay is of immense importance. This is because it lays out the coronation oath given to Otto I by the archbishop of Mainz. This is important given his later relation to the church. The elements in the oath were to drive out the enemies of the faith, to have power over all Franks, to preserve the peace and to meet out  fatherly discipline.  For all the powerful nobles at Aachen that day, there was no doubt what Otto was saying. His later victories against the Hungarians and Slavs gave teeth to this oath.
    He clearly linked his own power with that of old Francia and sought the discipline of the nobles. Resistance happened quickly, but the aristocracy was unable to get its own act together to combine against Otto. Ottos coffers expanded quickly, and his victories in the East gave him a great deal of prestige. Even more, this writer mentions that while Ottos father did not take a church oath, Otto did. This meant to all who heard it that the church was going to be a part of this rule, as the only organized power that could be mobilized against the great  dukes. It was also noted in this work that Henry, Ottos younger brother, viewed himself as the true heir. Hence, Henry stirred up trouble among the nobles, forcing Ottos hand early on in his reign. It may be this constant insecurity that forced Otto to constantly travel his realm seeking signs of disloyalty.

Smith, Philip (1879) The History of the Christian Church During its First Ten Centuries. Harper     and Brothers. (cf esp.  The Church in the Tenth Century.  pps 571-584

    This short essay stresses the decline of the papacy as being the center of Ottos church policy. With both a deeply corrupt pope and the evils of Roman faction politics, Otto, with some reason, viewed himself as the only real powerful person to reform the church and its structure. The connection here is the domination of the anti-GermanImperial party that saw John XII as their weapon. This alone gives the reader some pause to sympathize with Otto. He, according to this thesis, merely filled the vacuum left by Rome herself. Further, as Otto unified Germany, Italy became more and more divided, making it even more imperative that Otto intervene in Roman politics. Smith holds that many people in north Italy begged Otto to invade the country and kick out the oligarchs and their debauched instrument. Smith is clearly laying out a pro-imperial thesis.
    Furthermore, Smith paints Otto as the victim of constant noble conspiracies precisely at a time when the wealth of the country was increasing markedly. But Smith also holds that the ecclesiastical structure was as rebellious as the noble one. This is the only work where this idea is put forth. In short, Smith argues that Otto was precisely within his rights to invade Rome and put his own nobles to shame. But he also holds that this structure, the only one possible at the time, could not last. It was too unstable as the higher bishops and abbots decided to stop taking orders. Only with a man as strong as Otto I or III could this system hold together.

Schaff, Philip (1890) The History of the Christian Church Volume IV Medieval Christianity     from Gregory I to Gregory VII. Charles Scribners Sons. (cf esp  The Interference of Otto     the Great  pps 288-293

    This short but important essay, despite its negative title, is based around the idea, like Smith, Otto saved the papacy from itself and from the Roman factions. One problem with Ottos Italian policy was that Leo VIII, Ottos candidate, was only a layman, and had to be rushed through the clerical grades so he could be eligible to take office. This only provided grist for the anti-imperial party, and was one of the factors, much later, that led to the Gregorian reforms. It showed that Otto, in this case, was more interested in loyalty than canonical regularity, and it hurt him with the church at home. Ultimately, Schaff concludes by holding that the papacy was saved and basically purified, but only at the price of its independence.

Kampers, Franz (1911)  Otto I the Great.  The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II. Robert     Appleton and Company. (newadvent.org)

    The catholic Encyclopedia has always been a standard work for medieval researchers. Despite the removal of papal independence, Otto is described in basically positive terms. The basic divide is couched in ideological terms as between Ottonian centralization versus the more German conception of aristocratic individualism. Therefore, they paint Otto as going against the German grain in centralizing power. This Catholic work does not try to defend John XII as the evidence against him is too great (however it may have been exaggerated by Ottos men).
    This article, unlike all the others, stresses not so much the disciplining of the nobility, but the control of a nation   that of the west Franks. The west Franks were relatively anti-Saxon, and this movement bore the brunt of Ottos ecclesiastical politics. In other words, this work stresses the national, not class, basis of the nobility that Otto is trying to control, which is unique in the literature. It is also the only work reviewed here that stresses the power of the lesser nobles as equal to that of the church in defending Otto and his policies. Even more, this article also suggests that one of the means of breaking up powerful landed families was to interfere in their private quarrels, take one side over another and hence, split the family. Otto is depicted as Machiavellian, but one out of necessity.
    Unlike all the other works reviewed here, this article stresses that Otto was personally very devout, and, s a result, admonishes the reader to recall this in evaluating Ottos policy. He was undoubtedly motivated by religious motives as political ones, and Ottos own well known piety should be seen as evidence of this. Otto saved the church from Roman factions, corrupt prelates, corrupt landed families and the example of John XII. Otto is seen as a hero.
    What can we conclude The works cited above represent a hugely diverse group of writers from a religious, ethnic, temporal and political backgrounds. Yet they all agree on the following points Otto was personally not corrupt Otto loved the church and reformed it thoroughly Rome was the seat of corruption Otto unified Germany Otto created the conditions for a thriving mercantile trade through the church John XII was damaging to church interests.
    These points of general agreement are impressive, and clearly shows that, relative to his time, Otto is seen as a positive figure for progress, unity and literary and artistic reform. The points of disagreement are the methods used to force the Romans to capitulate the stress on loyalty above all things the creation of a church saturated with money and property and the choosing of the layman, Leo VIII to replace John. These seem to be more minor points, but significant all the same. It is difficult to conclude anything other than Otto was a great man and a religious reformer that deserves the respect of history.

The Cod Wars defines a series of conflicts that existed between the United Kingdom and Iceland. These conflicts started from the mid 1950s and extended to the mid 1970s. There were three Cod Wars that took place in 1958, 1973 and 1975. It is believed that the main reason as to why these wars took place was that Iceland was concerned about the Cod fish stock which was continuously being depleted by overfishing which was done by United Kingdom.
The main reason why Iceland was so concerned is that it had very few resources at the time and these resources were in the agriculture, timber, mineral deposits and fuel. This means that it had to look for another alternative form of resources and the only available resource was the Cod fish. It had to therefore rely heavily on the stock of Cod fish and it would do anything to protect this industry.
Looking at the first Cod War, it is said to have taken place in 1958. Since Iceland depended on fishing as its main source of income at the time, it saw it necessary to expand its fishing ground. It therefore decided to expand its fishing ground from the four mile mark to the twelve mile mark off its coast. This was against the agreement that existed between Iceland and United Kingdom. During this time, the United Kingdom tried to stop Iceland from extending this limit but they were unable to do so. This is believed to be the cause of the first Cod War as the United Kingdom would not allow Iceland to extend its fishing limits this far. This was not the end, later on in 1972, Iceland is said to extend its boundaries up to 50 miles in radius. The United Kingdom would not allow this and therefore, there was a hostile response from them and all the other nations fishing in the area and this was the origin of the second Cod War. This war did not last for long and it was ended by an agreement that was signed between the United Kingdom and Iceland in 1973. This agreement allowed British to fish in some areas in the 50 mile radius that Iceland had extended. Even though there was an agreement that vessel from Britain would go into the waters of Iceland, there was also another agreement that these vessels should not fish more than one hundred and twenty tones of fish from this region. The agreement was also supposed to be valid for two years and therefore, it expired in 1975. This meant that after the expiry of the agreement, the United Kingdom would like to regains some of the 50 miles that it had lost to Iceland. On the other hand, Iceland would not allow this to happen and as a result, there was some conflict that came up. In addition to this expiry of the agreement, Iceland is said to have made some further extension of the fishing area from the then 50 miles to 200 miles off its shore. There is no way that the United Kingdom would agree on this and therefore, the third Cod War started there. However, this war is said to have had more impact that the other two and it involved the United States mediating over the two countries thereby allowing Iceland to have the 200 mile radius as a requirement by the international bodies.
It can be argued that Iceland won in this battle as at the end of the day, they had the 200 mile radius fishing area. The main reason as to why Iceland won the battle is that it had more support from the international bodies than the United Kingdom. In addition, the United Kingdom may be blamed for the start of the third Cod War as it refused to comply with the requirement by the international bodies such as the United Nations. There is an international requirement that allows a country to fish in a radius of 200 miles for economic purposes. Therefore, it was obvious that Iceland was on the right while the United Kingdom was on the wrong.
Apart from this, Iceland is said to have threatened to close down the NATO base that was located in Keflavik. During that time, this closure would have some serious effects on the world peace and therefore there was a need to act on this matter. In addition, due to this threat, the United Nations had to act on its favor as this was the only way that it would prevent Iceland from closing down this base. These are said to be the main reasons as to why Iceland won in these wars. Most people in Iceland have very positive attitude towards the Cod Wars. Majority of them see it as a necessary step that was supposed to be taken so that they can save their country from poverty. It is out of this war that Iceland had been able to grow economically as it was able to increase its stock through more areas of fishing. Increased fishing through the Cod Wars may be termed as the backbone of the economy of Iceland. With very few economic opportunities, it was extremely necessary for Iceland to maximize on fishing as this seemed as the main source of their income. Therefore, they had to do all that they can so that they can increase or maximize on this resource. The War was the only way out as Britain would not agree to part with the waters just like that. The Cod Wars were therefore necessary for Iceland as they are the ones which determined its economic prosperity.

Hadrian (A.D. 117-138)
Hadrian is considered as one of the Five Good Emperors of the Roman Empire, and among these leaders, he can be regarded as the one with the most commendable rating.  What made him a very distinguished rule was that Hadrian focused on the welfare of the people.  Although his background was mostly military, and that his succession was mainly based on a distant relationship to his predecessor, Trajan, the maternal cousin of his father, Hadrians rule gave the empire a significant moment of prosperity and progress.  He was effective as a ruler because he was hands-on, and his ambitions were in  the consolidation of the empire and not its expansion.  Because of this, Hadrian managed to define the man-made boundaries of the empire.  Among his accomplishments were codification of the praetorian and aedilician edicts, an achievement in legal science as executed by Salvius Julianus, the rebuilding of Agrippas Pantheon and the completion of Trajans Forum, and other artistic and architectural pursuits.  (Benario)
    Born to a well-established family, Hadrian already gained the favor of his uncle, the emperor, and his wife, Plotina.  Trajan and Plotina did not have any children, and they served as Hadrians surrogate parents.  Hadrian did not fail them in demonstrating his ability to lead his military career included serving as military tribune for three different legions, and eventually, he was appointed consulate at the age of 32.  Trajan was confident in Hadrians skills, and prior to his death, he named him as his successor. (Benario)
2) Augustus Caesar
    Many may consider Augustus Caesar as the most important emperor because he managed to define the empire from the decay that it was experiencing.  He successfully did this through the implementation of a system of government called the Principate in which different areas of the empire had their respective appointed leaders.  This can be considered as his very important accomplishment.  However, as a leader, he was considered ambitious Augustus Caesar has been represented as a multifaceted individual, from tolerant to ruthless (Fagan).
    Augustus Caesar was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus.  His rise to imperial politics was due to his mother second marriage after his father died to the governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus.  This adoption would lead to young Octavius being raised by Julius Caesars sister, Julius Ceasaris.   Because Julius Caesar had no children, he would eventually adopt Octavius thus making him heir to the throne.  However, after Caesars death, the empire was in a shambles, leading to a power struggle with the like of Antony, Decimus Brutus and Lepidus as to who would lead the empire.  Eventually, Octavius would gain power as Augustus after the battle the battle in Actium. (Shotter)
3) Marcus Aurelius
    Marcus Aurelius was also among the Five Good Emperors.  His reign was the period in which the empire would experience its last phase of progress and prosperity.  Marcus Aurelius can be regarded as a reluctant leader as a Stoic, he wanted to live a simple, philosophical life, but he would eventually put his call to duty as his priority.  During his reign he maintained the empires standing albeit the internal challenges it faced from earthquakes to famines to an internal revolt at the end of his reign.  Although it was during his leadership that Pax Romana would eventually crumble, Marcus Aurelius was regarded as a fair and just leader, with his leadership philosophy mostly driven by Stoicism (Birley).
     Marcus Aurelius, born in Rome, descended from an aristocratic family from Spain.  At an early age he already illustrated an interest in philosophy, and this captured Hadrians attention who would supervise his education.  Hadrians successor, Antoninus Pius, would adopt Marcus Aurelius, thus naming him as his successor after his death. (Birley)
4) Caligula
    Caligulas notoriety can be attributed to his perversions and extravagance which would eventually lead to his own downfall.  He also mismanaged the empires treasury in which he continued his extravagance despite the financial crisis.  His relationship with the Roman Senate was also poor, thus, the leadership and legislation during his time would lead to an internal crisis.  On one hand, Caligula would also introduce public and political reform in Rome, and he restored democratic elections in the country. (Barrett)
    Caligula was born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus to Germanicus, one of the most notable and loved generals of the Roman Empire.  He was adopted by Emperor Tiberius, thus, making him an heir to the throne.
5) Nero
    Nero was the most controversial emperor that rose during the Roman Empire.  He became emperor at the age of sixteen, through Claudius, his uncle Claudius succeeded Caligula However, after his and his familys murder.  As a young emperor, Nero was assigned with certain powers, but eventually, as he got older, he started to become abusive.  A significant amount of executions took place during his reign, including that of his mother and stepbrother.  He also persecuted Christians, and it was during his leadership that the First Roman-Jewish War began. However, albeit his tyranny and extravagance, he was also believed to be popular to the Eastern populations of the empire.  (Shotter)
    Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus he was Caligulas nephew and great-great grandson of Ceasar Augustus through his mother, Agrippina the Younger.

    Christianity has got historic relationship with witchcraft. Many ancient cultures attributed witches and supernatural powers to bring harm to animals, crops, and possessions. Primitive cultures even had laws that give suitable punishment to different witchcraft-related offenses. Hebrews always denounced witchcraft. This is evident in the Mosaic Law. Following the steps of Judaism, the early Christian Churches also condemned witchcraft practices.

    While we look into the history of the cultures (even after the advent of Christianity) we understand that beliefs in witchcraft never disappeared from the minds of human beings. Witchcraft was also not always severely persecuted. For example, Synod of Reisbach (in 799) formally ordered penance as the punishment for females who are convicted of witchcraft practices. He however prohibited any sort of capital punishment for witchcraft cases. For a certain period, the official authority (rhetoric) of the Church even attempted to reduce the beliefs on witchcraft by labeling it as a delusion or false superstition.

    Christianity belief says that God is in heaven, far away from human society. The Church encouraged believers understand this and live a contented life enduring miseries, struggles and problems. Poverty, sickness, troubles and pain were considered as gifts of God. These gifts were considered as helping people to live a holy life, focusing their eyes on heaven and loosening their interest on earthly life. They were asked to shun physical pleasures and comforts. Life was expected to be endured, not enjoyed. Common people werent easily convinced to meekly adopt this philosophy  many hung on tenaciously to a belief in magic (Godbeer, 1992). They thus started believing that witchcraft can help them to deal with the harsh realities and struggles of their lives. The belief in magic, instead of subsiding, started growing. Certain heretical groups and few churchmen believed that witchcraft was much more than the illusions of the Devil. Many got convinced that witchcraft has got great power, triggered by the denizens of hell.

    Witches were reported to carry people along the air and having meetings where they performed lust-filled orgies with evil powers or demons. Mention is given to these activities in the The Bishops Canon, which appeared first in the 10th century and was later incorporated by  Franciscus Gratianus, a lawyer from Bologna, in his collection of canon law in 1150 (Karlsen, 1987). Women even confessed that they flew through the air. Though many like considered it as mere illusions, Chartres  John of Salisbury (English author, diplomat and bishop) considered this as the illusions performed by Devil. Englishman  Walter Map believed that wild orgies were real with Devil behind all the actions. Philip Schaff said that the daughter of a count traveled through air every night.

    In the year 1275, a lady of Toulouse, who was under torture, said that she had participated in sexual intercourse with an evil power (demon) for many years and had even begotten a part serpent, a wolf, a monster. Pope Gregory IX even issued a bull in the year 1231 recommending the use of laws of civil punishment to punish witchcraft. Dominican theologians spread the belief that incubi and succubi were mating with peoplea belief that was rooted in Augustines   City of God, xv23., as well as in the Genesis account of  angels mating with humans (Aronson, 2003).  Gregory IX, in the year 1233 said that Devil was appearing in different forms, in the shapes of a ghost, a black cat, a pallid etc. His papal bull, the Vox Rama, shockingly and graphically detailed what was taking place during witchs satanic, sexual orgies, and with the stroke of his pen launched an official, large-scale persecution of witches (Aronson, 2003). Thomas Aquinas, in the year 1274, admitted that human beings do live with demons. According to him old ladies can induce a devil spirit in young people with a mere glance. According to the leading theologian,   Gerson, witchcraft does have powers and it is impious to doubt the work of the demons. Eugenius IV is of the opinion that there are human beings who have made pacts with evil powers and made sacrifices unto them. All this made witchcraft to be considered as a heretical cult. It was also heretical to trust not in the powers of the Devil. A proper knowledge about witchcraft encouraged clear cut laws and punishment for witchcraft practices. The punishments and laws against witchcraft were thus clear laid out. The methods for trying, detecting and delivering witches were also defined. The powers that work behind witchcraft were thus considered as tricks of Satan, who is all set to attack and destroy Christianity.

    According to Early Modern European tradition, evil forces or demons are stereotypically (though not fully) been women. European pagan belief considered witchcraft as the work of goddess Diana. This has however been considered as a fantasy by Christian authors. The familiar witch of witchcraft stories,  o Superstition superstitions and folklores is a combination of several influences. The characterization of the demons as an evil magic power developed in the latter years. Early Christians (Catholics) looked to Christian clergy and other major churchmen to perform magic more effectively than the traditional methods of witchcraft followed by Roman Paganism. They also defined a special methodology for this, including saints and relics. This is similar to the gods and powers of the pagan beliefs. The Protestant Christian justification for witchcraft (like that specified in the confessions of the Witches Pendle Witches) generally includes a Diabolical pact diabolical pact or some petition to the intervention of the powers of the evil. The witches, evil powers or demons who participated in such practices were alleged to reject Jesus, his teachings and sacrament. Those who reject this sacraments were found to be following witch Sabbath, doing infernal rites and rituals that parodied the major sacraments of the Church. They gave divine honor to   o Satan the evil power (Prince of Darkness) and obtained  Preternatural preternatural powers in return. There existed a folkloric belief that a Devils symbol (resembling a brand on cattle) was made on the body of the witch by the devil to identify the pact with which the witch is involved. Witches were considered as females. They were doubted to collapse societal institutions like marriage.
    Witch hunt was widely practiced in those days. A witch hunt is a search for  Witch witches or evidence of  Witchcraft witchcraft, often involving Moral panic moral panic,  Mass hysteria mass hysteria and  Lynching lynching, but in historical instances also legally sanctioned and involving official witchcraft trials (Roach, 2002). The periods when witchcraft was popular include the Early Modern period Early Modern period (or the period 1480 to 1700). Witch-hunt refers to the terror-induced attempts for tracing the culprits other than the witches. The most popular example of witch hunt is the  McCarthyist McCarthyist search for tracing communists during the Cold War period. Salem witch trials are yet another major incidents to be mentioned there. The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court  Trial (law) trials to prosecute people accused of  Witchcraft witchcraft in County, Massachusetts Suffolk, and  o Middlesex County, Massachusetts Middlesex counties of  o Province of Massachusetts Bay colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693 (Roach, 2002). Many literary works portray the witchcraft practices prevailed in early New England. Entertaining Satan Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England present before the readers a broad view of witchcraft and examine its influence in the world, from primitive days to the modern days. This celebrated work of John Putnam Demos provides a new outlook of American witchcraft. Through examining the existing historical documents of more than a hundred real witchcraft cases, Demos restructured the world of New England in the period of the witchcraft trials. This account of John Putnam Demos is a detailed depiction of the psychological history of the people who are portrayed. In the book we read a cultural history in which the author explains, interprets and analyzes the community (which he mentioned) as a power or force that is able to create or frame its historical destiny. In the book the cultural history is analyzed in the realm of witchcraft practices that prevailed in early New England. The author analyses the culture of the period in the sociological, psychological and cultural phenomenon. Demos say that the witch trials that prevailed in Salem were not the only type of witch trials that existed in America in those days. He further explains the psychodynamic structures of the 17th century society. He also provides a list of psychoanalytic tools, in particular projection, while trying to explain what triggered the fear of witchcraft. By psychology in the background of his understand about the history of witchcraft that prevailed in New England in the 17th century, the author gave a wonderful presentation of the cultural scenario that existed during that time. The author is studying about a society considering their characteristics. He is thus able to explain what resulted in the practice of witchcraft. In part four the author says that the Salem witch trials were not isolated events. Witch trials were very much prevalent during those days. The author studies the witchcraft process along the towns like Hampton. He also examines the records that are related to its inhabitants. In the closing chapters of the book the author emphasizes how a good part of them (the inhabitants who were accused of witchcraft) were Puritan. By studying about Hampton as well as the town of Wethersfield, the author presents a good history about the communities in New England   (Demos, 1983). He further explains what afflictions, agonies and miseries they encountered that witchcraft became a common practice for them. The last part of the book brings several well-argued biographical images and the sociological and psychological sketches of the community that existed during those days. The detailed explanation given by the author also provided the general history of the communities and the real consequences of witchcraft in their lives. Learning the history of these communities will make us understand why they became easily liable to witchcraft. The cultural background of the communities prepared the way for the birth and growth of witchcraft.

     A creative playwright like Euripides may or may not imagine the purposes his or her play would eventually serve.  It is for spectators and readers to decide whether a play serves any purpose whatsoever beyond its essential literary merit.  To the ancient Greeks, Medea by Euripides was another Greek tragedy.  They were accustomed to this genre.  Besides, Medea spoke of ancient Greek gods and goddesses  referred to as myths in modern writings about ancient Greek religion  as did various other writings of the time, including Euripides works.  Hence, Medea must have been another addition to Greek tragedies speaking of gods and goddesses, thereby adding value to literature of the time whilst allowing the spectators and readers of the play to make connections between Medea and other Greek tragedies speaking of gods and goddesses.   

     Medea, the passionate woman in Euripides play of the same name, is divine enough to ride the sun god of the pagans, Helios chariot.  Yet she is wicked and ruthless, and she understands that she is a barbarian.  She tells Jason, I am the mother of your children.  Whither can I fly, since all Greece hates the barbarian (Euripides).  She is a murderess, too, a woman who is capable of killing her own children.  Thus, she is in no position to teach ethics, morality or values to ancient Greek society where this play was aired the first time.  Then again, her divine persona serves as an excuse for her barbaric mindset and behavior.  Should ancient Greek women take her for a model to emulate  If so, the entire ancient Greek society would turn barbaric seeing that all mothers would be contemplating murders of their children.  Because all ancient Greek writings do not show barbaric women, as oppressive and cold-blooded as Medea, however, it must be assumed that Medea is an example not to follow.  If she had been perceived as a good character, or a pardonable one, other ancient Greek writings would most likely show the effect or ancient Greek history would reveal that most women took Medea as a model to emulate.  But, this did not happen. 

     In fact, Medea, the play, makes a mockery of ancient Greek gods and goddesses.  It also takes a critical look at ancient Greek culture.  Jason has betrayed his wife, Medea, and yet he claims that he has done what he considered was best.  He even claims that he has behaved like a civilized man rather than the barbaric ones that Medea would be exposed to in her own place of origin.  Medea, the play, considers the fact that people who claim to be civilized  as did the ancient Greeks  do not necessarily behave like cultured people with ethics.  Perhaps Euripides knew that this was happening in every other rich home in ancient Greece.  Regardless, the play looks upon ancient Greek society realistically.  Ethical problems are everywhere, which is why ancient Greece created great philosophers of morality such as Socrates.

     Thus, the main purpose of the play, Medea, in the time that it is set is truth telling or exposure of societal realities.  Euripides could have written about a refined woman instead  one who handled her emotional problems in a peacable manner.  What is more, Medea could have been a model to emulate given her divine persona.  However, Euripides would like to expose the flaws in ancient gods and goddesses, just as he allows truth to be told when it comes to ancient Greek culture.  Jason could have been a sophisticated man behaving ethically.  But, Euripides knows that all men who claim to be civilized do not always behave ethically.  Hence, the exposure of incivility in ancient Greek civilization must have been thought-provoking for the people of the time.  Many spectators and readers of Medea in ancient Greece must also have identified with the main characters of the play.  

     To modern readers, Medea is not really a divine figure, and ancient Greek religion is only paganism.  Nobody looks up to Medea as a goddess.  Modern civilization also does not make high priests of morality such as Socrates.  Furthermore, nobody believes that people in the civilized world are always mindful of morality and ethics.  Imagine if Bill Clinton had addressed Hillary Clinton with the words of Jason once his affair with Monica Lewinsky had been publicized
         It is not now I first remark, but oft ere this, how unruly a pest is a harsh temper. For
         instance, thou, hadst thou but patiently endured the will of thy superiors, mightest have
         remained here in this land and house, but now for thy idle words wilt thou be banished. Thy 
         words are naught to me. Cease not to call Jason basest of men but for those words thou
         hast spoken against our rulers, count it all gain that exile is thy only punishment. I ever   
         tried to check the outbursts of the angry monarch, and would have had thee stay, but thou
         wouldst not forego thy silly rage, always reviling our rulers, and so thou wilt be banished
         (Euripides)

Passionate women, both adulteresses and murderesses, abound in modern literature and films.  Thus, Medeas mindset and behavior is not as shocking to the modern reader as it may have been to ancient Greeks.  Modern civilization also does not frown upon criticism of rulers or political leaders.  If societal flaws are exposed through films, literature or modern media, viewers and readers are expected to learn their lessons from this exposure, that is, to refrain from following the example of individuals such as Medea and other criminals.  Even the likes of Jason and Bill Clinton are not expected to serve as models to emulate in every way, seeing that these individuals pretend to be cultured when, in fact, their moral flaws have been exposed.  Assuming that the ancient Greeks did not appreciate Jason and Media as models to emulate either, public reaction to the play, Medea, in the context of ethics and values must be the same then and now.  Then again, Jason and Medea are not divine characters for modern-day readers.  The play does not mortify the modern civilization as it did the ancient Greeks.

     Lastly, modern civilization has developed feminist theories around facts of gender inequality in literature, arts, economics, sociology, philosophy, anthropology and all other areas of knowledge with elements of feminist politics.  Feminist philosophy was unheard of at the time Medea was first published.  The woman, Medea, is reacting to Jasons insult.  Although women continue to be abused in modern-day literature and films, there are plenty who fight back as well.  More importantly, they know that they cannot easily fly away from social control, including laws, after behaving brutishly like Medea.  After all, Medeas divine nature was only fictional.  Women have to deal with modern-day realities as they tackle injustice.  Nevertheless, many readers of Medea would identify with the characters of Euripides play.  Female readers may even experience the sprinkling of salt on their wounds as they peruse this play.